Proprioception refers to the sense of the position and movement of the body. It is detected by receptors in muscles, joints, and skin. Proprioceptive signals are sent to the central nervous system. The parietal cortex integrates proprioceptive information. Proprioception can be affected by factors like age, fatigue, injury, and diseases like Parkinson's. Proprioceptive training aims to enhance joint awareness and can help prevent injuries in sports. Body ownership refers to the sense that a body part belongs to one's own body, as shown in experiments with rubber hands.
Introduction, principles of sensory re-education hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity, stages of training after nerve repair, uses and benefits, sensory reeducation in stroke - its principle. Actve and passive Sensory reeducation in stroke, orofacial sensory retraining
Hierachical theory- says that higher centers control on lower center; but when higher center damage then this inhibitory control from the higher center is loss which leads to exageration of the movt.
In normal individual, these occur a smooth, rhythmic movt. Because there is a presence of control from higher center on lower center.
Basic Introduction about Joint Mobilisation and Manipulation, This article gives clear notes for the students to understand the Mobilisation techniques.
Introduction, principles of sensory re-education hypersensitivity and hyposensitivity, stages of training after nerve repair, uses and benefits, sensory reeducation in stroke - its principle. Actve and passive Sensory reeducation in stroke, orofacial sensory retraining
Hierachical theory- says that higher centers control on lower center; but when higher center damage then this inhibitory control from the higher center is loss which leads to exageration of the movt.
In normal individual, these occur a smooth, rhythmic movt. Because there is a presence of control from higher center on lower center.
Basic Introduction about Joint Mobilisation and Manipulation, This article gives clear notes for the students to understand the Mobilisation techniques.
this PPT contain detailed kinetics & kinematics of ankle joint & all joints of foot complex, muscles of ankle & foot complex, plantar arches & weight distribution during standing.
Waddling gait- definition|role of muscle|gait analysis|kinematic and spatiote...jasna ok
This powerpoint is about WADDLING GAIT,muscle that cause waddling gait , its causes, reasons for why this gait is called duck gait and pregnancy gait, gait analysis , and its physical therapy treatment
This presentation give an upto date insightful information on balance/postural assessment and key domains of Occupational Therapy during assessment of balance using different scales.
This is the presentation which was delivered to third year Bachelor of Physiotherapy students at Kathmandu University School of Medical Sciences (KUSMS), Dhulikhel, Nepal. Different schools of thoughts in manual therapy are the part of curriculum for the undergraduate students at KUSMS.
Controlled use of sensory stimulus.
Specific Motor response
Normalization of muscle tone
Use of Developmental sequences.
Sensorimotor development = from lower to higher level.
Use of activity to demand a purposeful response.
Practice of sensory motor response is necessary for motor learning.
There are evidence in History of treatment by Passive stretching techniques.
Over past 30-40 years many therapists have worked to identify and learn the techniques which are are more suitable and effective for the patient’s problem.
Joint mobilisations and manipulations techniques are used to safely stretch or snap structures to restore normal joint mechanics with less trauma.
this PPT contain detailed kinetics & kinematics of ankle joint & all joints of foot complex, muscles of ankle & foot complex, plantar arches & weight distribution during standing.
Waddling gait- definition|role of muscle|gait analysis|kinematic and spatiote...jasna ok
This powerpoint is about WADDLING GAIT,muscle that cause waddling gait , its causes, reasons for why this gait is called duck gait and pregnancy gait, gait analysis , and its physical therapy treatment
This presentation give an upto date insightful information on balance/postural assessment and key domains of Occupational Therapy during assessment of balance using different scales.
This is the presentation which was delivered to third year Bachelor of Physiotherapy students at Kathmandu University School of Medical Sciences (KUSMS), Dhulikhel, Nepal. Different schools of thoughts in manual therapy are the part of curriculum for the undergraduate students at KUSMS.
Controlled use of sensory stimulus.
Specific Motor response
Normalization of muscle tone
Use of Developmental sequences.
Sensorimotor development = from lower to higher level.
Use of activity to demand a purposeful response.
Practice of sensory motor response is necessary for motor learning.
There are evidence in History of treatment by Passive stretching techniques.
Over past 30-40 years many therapists have worked to identify and learn the techniques which are are more suitable and effective for the patient’s problem.
Joint mobilisations and manipulations techniques are used to safely stretch or snap structures to restore normal joint mechanics with less trauma.
pediatric electrodiagnostic for cerebral palsy,
A diagnosis of CP is often made based on MRI, delay of motor milestones and the presence of gait abnormalities in young children
Although the initial brain injury is non-progressive, the musculoskeletal impairments and functional limitations associated with CP are progressive
Three main classes of CP include spastic, dyskinetic and ataxic
To Compare The Effect Of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Program Ve...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Low back pain has been a matter of concern, affecting up to 90% of population at some point in
their lifetime, up to 50% have more than one episode. People of all age group can be affected by this menace
irrespective to their gender and quality of life. It has become one of the leading causes for the visit to physician
thus also puts a heavy burden on the currency of the country. Physiotherapy is the most widely used form of
treatment adopted for gaining relief from low back pain. The exercises include stretching, strengthening, range
of motion exercises, McKenzie therapy and core stability exercises other techniques like Proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation program etc. It has been concluded in various studies core stability exercises and
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation are beneficial in low back pain patients but comparison of their effect
needs to be established to provide early and better relief from the disability. Therefore objective of the study was
to compare the effect of Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program and Core stabilization exercises on
low back pain patients. 40 subjects aged 30 – 50 years with low back pain for more than 4 weeks were made
part of the study based on inclusion and exclusion criteria and were then divided into two groups named A, B.
Group A received Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and group B received Core stabilization exercises
and hot pack given initially for 10-15 minutes to the lower back. The exercise program was given for 4 weeks
with a total of 24 sessions and progression of the activity was made within the tolerance of the patient. Pre and
post treatment readings were taken of pain, Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test.
Results were analyzed using paired, unpaired t- test. Results showed that there is significant effect on pain,
Oswestry Disability Questionnaire and Functional Reach Test in the two groups but group A was clinically
more significant than groups B. The study concluded that patients with low back pain are benefitted more by
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program. So, Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation program
should be practiced more.
Keywords: Low Back Pain, Core Stabilization Exercises, Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation.
To Compare The Effect Of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation and Static...ijtsrd
Background: Flexibility is an important physiological component of physical fitness and reduced flexibility can cause inefficiency in the workplace and is also a risk factor for low back pain. Increasing hamstring flexibility was reported to be an effective method for increasing hamstring muscle performance.Objective: To compare the effects of modified hold-relax proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching technique and static stretching on flexibility of hamstring muscle.Materials and Methods: In this comparative study 60 subjects were selected by convenience sampling and research design was comparative and experiment in nature. Subjects were selected on the basis of inclusion criteria. Subjects were divided into two groups, group A and group B allocating alternate subjects to group A and group B, 30 in each group. Group A was treated with Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation with cryotherapy and Group B was treated with Static Stretching with cryotherapy. Baseline assessment was taken on pre stretch, post stretch and after 24 hours using Active Knee Extension test and Modified back saver sit and reach test.Results: Both the groups showed significant improvement in hamstring flexibility. (p0.05).Conclusion: Thus we concluded that the Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Stretching Technique and Static Stretching both are effective to improve flexibility of hamstring muscle and clinically both the interventions are equally effective. Tanu Kapila | Dilpreet Kaur | Jaspinder Kaur"To Compare The Effect Of Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation and Static Stretching on Flexibility of Hamstring Muscle: A Comparative Study" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-1 | Issue-5 , August 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd2266.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/2266/to-compare-the-effect-of-proprioceptive-neuromuscular-facilitation-and-static-stretching-on-flexibility-of-hamstring-muscle-a-comparative-study/tanu-kapila
A two day workshop presented by Albion Musculoskeletal Therapist Paula Nutting. Paula discusses stretching options for treatment of conditions including headaches, lower back pain, shoulder problems and more. Queensland born Remedial massage therapist Paula Nutting will show you easy effective stretches to help return to normal muscle length which should lead to pain relief.
If you have ever treated runners, having them stop or modify activity during rehabilita- tion is nearly impossible. As someone who specializes in the treatment of endurance
athletes, I am always looking for an edge
to return them to activity as soon as possible.
To Compare The Effect Of Core Stability Exercises And Muscle Energy Technique...IOSR Journals
Abstract: Low back pain is considered one of the commonest condition in the western and industrialized
countries. It is estimated that up to 50% of adults experience low back pain during their life span. People of all
age group can be effected by this menace irrespective to their gender and quality of life. It has become one of
the leading causes for the visit to physician thus also puts a heavy burden on the currency of the country.
Physiotherapy is the most widely used form of treatment adopted for gaining relief from low back pain. The
exercises include stretching, strengthening, range of motion exercises, McKenzie therapy and core stability
exercises other techniques like muscle energy technique etc. It has been concluded in various studies core
stability exercises and muscle energy technique are beneficial in low back pain patients but comparison of their
effect needs to be established to provide early and better relief from the disability. Therefore objective of the
study was to compare the effect of core stability exercises and muscle energy techniques on low back pain
patients. 60 subjects aged 18 – 45 years with low back pain were made part of the study based on inclusion and
exclusion criteria and were then divided into three groups named A, B and C. Group A received core stability
exercise and conventional physiotheraphy and group B received muscle energy techniques and conventional
physiotherapy. The exercise program was given on alternate days with a total of 24 sessions and progression of
the activity was made within the tolerance of the patient. Pre and post treatment readings were taken of pain,
ROM and quality of life scale. Results were analyzed using paired, unpaired t- test and ANOVA. Results showed
that there is significant effect on pain, ROM and quality of life scale in the three groups but group A was
clinically more significant than the other groups. The study concluded that patients with low back pain are
benefitted more by core stability exercises. So, core stability exercises should be practiced more.
Keywords: Low Back Pain, Core Stabilization Exercises, Muscle Energy Technique.
hip osteoarthritis is most disabling condition and surgery is a consequence of the same. but if this condition can assess on time so it can be manageable with conservative treatment and decrease the prevalence of AVN. further life of an individual become better.
Conference of the Tense Active Motor Control in the Shoulder. XIVth Federation of European Societies for Surgery of the Hand, FESSH Congress 3rd to 6th of June 2009 Poznan, Poland. The author explain how the connective system is determinant to control the motions in the shoulder, an special joint deeply dependent of the tissue deformation of the connective and sof tissues to build the adequate movements. Are the connective tissues a passive sub system? Dr. López proposed a new vision how understand the role of Fascias, ligaments, Capsules and other connective tissues during the movements and posture.
The effect of instability training on knee joint proprioception and core stre...Fernando Farias
A general 10-week IT program utilizing Swiss balls and body mass as a resistance proved effective for improving knee proprioception as well as trunk flexion and extension strength in previously inactive individuals. The present study demonstrates that the use of body weight as a resis- tance under unstable conditions can provide significant improvements in knee proprioception (for as long as 9 months after training) and trunk strength for the untrained population that should contribute to general health and functionality.
In this presentation the author, David Lopez Chiropractor DC and Kinesiologyst (PT) from Chile expose about the different principles under the scope of the osteopathic manipulation of the spine. Dr. Lopez is director of the progran in Chiropractic for healh professional of the "Universidad Central de Chile" and director of the Diplomats in Manual Therapy of the "Universidad Santo Tomas de Chile. The interest is to review the fundamentals to understand the approach of the Osteopathy to the practice of the manual therapy and healthcare. This vision was exposed in Poland in the framework of an international symposium of Physiotherapy.
2. What is Proprioception?
Proprioception refers to sensations generated by the body’s own actions (Proske and
Gandevia, 2012).
By convention, these include four senses:
- movement and limb position (kinaes-thesia)
- the sense of tension or force;
- the sense of effort
- the sense of balance
(Proske and Gandevia, 2012)
3. How Proprioception Works
Muscle spindles detect changes in length and velocity of a muscle, and then transmit
that information to the central nervous system via sensory neurons.
Joint receptors
Skin receptors
Vibration
Motor equivalence
(Hepp-Reymond, M., Chakarov, V., Schulte-Mönting, J., Huethe, F., & Kristeva, R.
(2009). Role of proprioception and vision in handwriting. Brain Research Bulletin,
79(6), 365-370) (Hepp-Reymond, Chakarov, Schulte-Mönting, Huethe & Kristeva,
4. Brain and Proprioception
Sense of relative position and spatial orientation from stimuli within the body.
Multisensory regions in the parietal cortex as well as parts of more distributed
networks such as the frontal cortex and insula
Left parietal lesions are implicated in an alteration of body awareness in which patients
are unable to point to parts of their own body on verbal instruction, in spite of being
able to respond to verbal commands to move that part toward an external object (e.g.
touch the pedal of that bicycle) -
(Proske and Gandevia, 2012)
5. Phantom Limb Pain
- Perceptions that an individual experiences relating to a limb or an organ that is
not physically part of the body
- Limb loss is a result of either removal by amputation or congenital limb
deficiency
- Sensation of posture, movement, sensation, pain
- Peripheral and spinal mechanisms
- 80% of amputees experience phantom limb pain. (Meyer, 2012)
- Mirror box therapy
Ramachandran, V. S., Brang, D., & McGeoch, P. D. (2009). Size reduction using mirror
visual feedback (MVF) reduces phantom pain. Neurocase, 15(5), 357-360.
6. History of Proprioception
Theories about Muscle sense date all the way back to the 17th century.
One person that made a proposal for a 6th sense was Nicholas J Wade.
Bastian (17), who coined the term kinesthesis, was the only one at the time who
contemplated a hybrid theory, comprising both central and peripheral nervous system
components.
He later abandoned the idea for peripheral only components.
Sensation of innervations was replaced by an idea that focussed completely on
peripheral receptors.
7. History continued
Wrong since the main receptor type was thought to be joint receptors, not muscle
receptors
Now we know the importance of peripheral signs for passive proprioception but some
old ideas have come back as well such as sensation of innervations plays a large role in
active proprioception where the creation of peripheral signals is accompanied by
voluntary motor activity
The modern view has muscle spindles as the principal proprioceptors.
Proske, U., Gandevia, SC. (2012). The Proprioceptive Senses: Their Roles in Signaling Body Shape, Body Position and Movement, and Muscle
Force. American Physiological Society, 92, 1651–1697. doi:10.1152/physrev.00048.2011
8. Things that affect proprioception
● Age related
● Fatigue related
● Disease related
● Injury related
- Damage to central or peripheral nervous system can be followed by an
impairment of proprioception that leads to a movement disorder. (Dietz, 2002)
9. ● Age-related changes in central or peripheral somatosensory function, or both, likely underlie
proprioception declines in older adults. Evidence for peripheral changes include decreased number and
function of muscle spindles, cutaneous receptors, and joint receptors. (Wingert, 2014)
● A decline in hip proprioception due to age did disrupt performance in motor tasks requiring higher levels
of balance, such as anticipatory and compensatory postural adjustments and gait stability. Since
fall-related injuries tend to occur during dynamic activities. (Wingert, 2014)
● An increased reliance on vision for maintenance of balance in older adults may be a compensatory
strategy for proprioception deficits in the lower extremity. (Ingemanson, 2016)
(Wingert, 2014) (Wingert, 2014)
Aging
10. Fatigue and Injury
There are different hypotheses regarding the underlying causes of change in proprioception in the presence of fatigue:
1. Malfunction of joint and muscle receptors may contribute to the change in proprioception (Voight et al. 1996).
2. The Sense of Effort (Proske, 2005)
It is plausible that some forms of muscle spindle desensitization or the ligament relaxation and Golgi tendon desensitization occurs
with excessive fatigue (Hosseini et al., 2012), (Mc Gregor et al., 2011), (Purvi et al., 2012).
Fatigued muscles have been demonstrated in laboratory studies to be able to absorb less force than their non-fatigued counterparts.
It is this reduction in force attenuation that is considered to be the reason why fatigued muscles are at increased risk for injury. (Bahr
R. 2009).
The sense of effort is our perception of the heaviness of objects and the muscle forces we generate (McCloskey 1981).
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11. Parkinson’s Disease
● Research demonstrates that Parkinson’s Disease (PD) is associated with an array of perceptual deficits,
such as odor and tactile discrimination and detection, weight and pain perception, and the perception of
visual depth.
●
● Recent evidence suggests that kinaesthesia is especially affected by PD and that such loss of kinaesthetic
sensitivity is closely linked to the motor deficits. (Konczak, 2009)
● In general, the neurodegenerative processes associated with PD may lead to irregular neural hyper- or
hypoactivity in the basal ganglia and could act as a constant facilitator or brake on its efferent target
structures (Pessiglione et al., 2005).
● Monkeys were made parkinsonian through 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)
treatment, most neurons started responding to movements of several joints. Following MPTP-induced
parkinsonism, the tuning of the proprioceptive receptive fields of these thalamic neurons was largely
broadened thus providing much noisier and less differentiated proprioceptive information to cortical motor
regions.(Pessiglione et al., 2005)
12. Sport, injury prevention and Proprioception
- Proprioception is responsible for precise, smooth and
coordinated movement control in sports and daily
functional activities.. (dietz, 2002)
Better proprioception correlates with higher sport
performance
Han 2014 study on sport attainment and proprioception
15. Proprioceptive training and injury prevention in sport
Specific proprioceptive training can be used to enhance
joint proprioception and balance control
Proprioception plays an important role in joint stability and
injury prevention in sport (Riva, 2016)
Injury prevalence is significantly greater in athletes with
poor balance control (Han, 2015)
16. What is proprioceptive training?
Proprioceptive exercises require the management of
instability.
- Many exercises can be defined as such
Relating to sport, proprioceptive training typically focuses
on balance and active movement exercises.
Main focus of proprioceptive training is on the use of somatosensory
signals such as proprioceptive or tactile afferents in the absence of
information from other modalities such as vision.
Balance control has been found to be a key predictor in injury, in both
athletes as well as elderly and diseased populations.
17. Proprioceptive training in Professional basketball players
- Study looked at effects of proprioceptive training over 6 years on incidence of ankle sprains, knee sprains,
and low back pain.
- 55 basketball players
- The 6 years were split into 3 bienniums
- 1st (2004-2006) classic proprioceptive exercises
- 2nd (2006-2008) interactive electronic postural proprioceptive stations
- 3rd (2008-2010) increased intensity and longer repetitions
18.
19. Rehabbing injuries with proprioception
Proprioceptive deficit predisposes athletes to injuries (Lephart & Pincivero & Giraido & Fu, 1997)
Objective: retrain altered afferent pathways to enhance the sensation of joint
movements (Walsh & Moseley & Taylor & Gandevia, 2011)
Knee
● ACL and Meniscus Tear (Walsh et al. 2011)
Ankle
● Sprains (Kin Tape)(Walsh et al. 2011)
Shoulder
● Restore joint proprioception through the repair of traumatized tissue
(surgery) (Walsh et al. 2011)
20. K-Tape and support on proprioception
Kin Tape (KT) vs Athletic Tape (Spanos & Brunswic & Billis, 2008)
● KT- Waterproof and stretchable
● Athletic Tape- not elastic and restricts movement
Purpose: Provide immediate sensorimotor feedback (Kaya & Zinnurogu & Tugcu, 2011)
Pain attenuation was found to improve proprioception (Spanos et al. 2008)
Under-wrapping athletic tape affected cutaneous mechanoreceptors hence decreasing
proprioception (Spanos et al. 2008)
21. Romberg Test/ Sign
The Romberg test is administered as a test for neurological function. It is generally
administered to quantify the degree of neurological control a person holds over their
body, and is accordingly used by law enforcement for roadside sobriety field
examinations. It contains an element of proprioceptive difficulty.
The test is as follows: To pass an individual must maintain balance while standing on
one leg with the eyes closed. The reasoning for this is that is requires at least two of the
following three traits to complete: 1) Proprioception, 2) Vestibular control, and 3)
Vision.
Eliminating vision by closing the eyes allows impaired proprioception/ vestibular
control to present.
22. Clinical Application
● Most current ideas about treatment are in regards to muscle weakness and peripheral feedback
mechanisms.
● Some physiotherapists have begun using proprioception as a diagnostic tool in tests similar to the
Romberg test or functional movement screen (FMS).
● Poor proprioceptive scores can tell clinical practitioners about areas where muscle weakness or
misalignments.
Knowing where theses areas are allow practitioners to fine tune rehabilitation programs to make patients
more confident about joint positioning and limb placement.
23. What is body ownership?
The belief of what is a part of your body (what you own on your body)
Vision and hearing cannot differentiate between foreign body parts and our own
Ownership of an artificial limb does not need vision to be effective, a participant can
be blindfolded and experience ownership as well
Illusion is strong following local anesthesia of cutaneous and joint afferents in the
finger
Body Integrity Identity Disorder (BIID) and Rubber Hand Study
24. Rubber Hand Study
Participants rested their hands on the table and had a screen put up hiding one hand
from view and then placed a rubber hand in front of them.
The person running the study then touched the rubber hand and the participants hand
as close as possible to matching in time for a period of time while participants stared at
the rubber hand.
The completed questionnaires indicated that subjects experienced an illusion in which
they seemed to feel the touch not of the hidden brush but that of the viewed brush, as
if the rubber hand had sensed the touch.
Botvinick, M., & Cohen, J. (1998). Rubber hands 'feel' touch that eyes see. Nature, 391(6669), 756-756. doi:10.1038/35784
26. Body Integrity Identity Disorder (BIID)
People that have an extreme desire to amputate one of their healthy limbs due to a highly disturbed sense of
ownership for their limb(s) which makes them feel “incomplete” as long as the limb is there and they will not
accept it as a part of their body
Similar to somatoparaphrenia - believing that one’s own limb belongs to someone else
Sense of ownership relates to awareness of the body as belonging to yourself and feeling that a body part
belongs to your own body
Desire to amputate or to paralyze the limb
Dysfunctional activity of the right parietal lobe for tactile stimulation of the affected limb
Insua has also been found to be altered which is an area that is associated with higher order body
representations
27. Future Directions
Diffusion tensor imaging
Characterized microstructural changes or differences with neuropathology and
treatment
Motor cortical neurons
Brain does not care about information about muscle length changes provided by
individual afferents
Cares more about the population of muscle afferent signals coming about in
groups of muscles
28. Future
Senses of effort force and heaviness
Reafferent signal generated by the motor command plays a dominant role in
generating sensation
If experiments that happen support this view it makes us have to rethink the role of
muscle spindles and the fusimotor system
29. References[ [1] Bahr, R. , and Engebretsen, L.( 2009). "Sports Injury Prevention." Blackwell Publishing. P. 78- 112.
[2] Botvinick, M., & Cohen, J. (1998). Rubber hands 'feel' touch that eyes see. Nature, 391(6669), 756-756. doi:10.1038/35784
[3] Collins, A. T., Blackburn, J. T., Olcott, C. W., Miles, J., Jordan, J., Dirschl, D. R., & Weinhold, P. S. (2011). Stochastic resonance electrical
stimulation to improve proprioception in knee osteoarthritis. The Knee, 18(5), 317-322. doi:10.1016/j.knee.2010.07.001
[4] Dietz, V. (2002). Proprioception and locomotor disorders. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(10), 781-790. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn939
[5] Escola, L., Michelet, T., Douillard, G., Guehl, D., Bioulac, B. and Burbaud, P. 2002. Disruption of the proprioceptive mapping in the medial
wall of parkinsonian monkeys. Annals of Neurology, 52: 581–587.
[6] Han, J., Anson, J., Waddington, G., & Adams, R. (2014). Sport Attainment and Proprioception.International Journal Of Sports Science And
Coaching, 9(1), 159-170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1260/1747-9541.9.1.159
[7] Hosseini, S., Rostamkhany, H., Panahi, M. and Darzi, R. L. (2012). "Exercise-Related Fatigue Change Dynamic Postural Control in Healthy
Males." Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 11 (2). P. 230-36.
[8] Ingemanson, M. L., Rowe, J. B., Chan, V., Wolbrecht, E. T., Cramer, S. C., & Reinkensmeyer, D. J. (2016). Use of a robotic device to measure
age-related decline in finger proprioception. Experimental Brain Research, 234(1), 83-93. doi:10.1007/s00221-015-4440-4
[9] Konczak, J., Corcos, D. M., Horak, F., Poizner, H., Shapiro, M., Tuite, P.. . Maschke, M. (2009). Proprioception and motor control in
parkinson's disease. Journal of Motor Behavior, 41(6), 543-552. doi:10.3200/35-09-002
30. References[10] McGregor, S. J., Yaggie, J. A., Bollt, E. M., and Parshad, J. J. (2011). "Lower extremity fatigue increases complexity of postural control
during a single-legged stance." Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation, 8 (43). P. 2-10
[11] Pessiglione, M., Guehl, D., Rolland, A. S., Francois, C., Hirsch, E. C.Feger, J. 2005. Thalamic neuronal activity in dopamine-depleted
primates: Evidence for a loss of functional segregation within basal ganglia circuits. Journal of Neuroscience, 25: 1523–1531.
[12] Proske, U., Gandevia, SC. (2012). The Proprioceptive Senses: Their Roles in Signaling Body Shape, Body Position and Movement, and
Muscle Force. American Physiological Society, 92, 1651–1697. doi:10.1152/physrev.00048.2011
[13] Purvi, K. C., Selvamani, K., and Ramaprabhu. (2012). "A study to evaluate the effect of fatigue on knee joint proprioception and balance in
healthy individuals." International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA), 2 (2). P. 645-49
[14] Seel, N. (2012). Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning. [Place of publication not identified]: Springer.
[15] Trans, T., Aaboe, J., Henriksen, M., Christensen, R., Bliddal, H., & Lund, H. (2009). Effect of whole body vibration exercise on muscle
strength and proprioception in females with knee osteoarthritis. The Knee, 16(4), 256-261. doi:10.1016/j.knee.2008.11.014
[16] Seel, N. (2012). Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning. [Place of publication not identified]: Springer.
[17] Wingert, J. R., Welder, C., & Foo, P. (2014). Age-Related Hip Proprioception Declines: Effects On Postural Sway and Dynamic Balance.
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[18] Yalfani, A., Gandomi, F., & Abbasi, H. (2013). the effect of fatigue on the ankle and knee proprioception and dynamic control of posture.
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