This document discusses produced water handling and treatment technologies. Produced water is a byproduct of oil and gas production that contains dispersed oil, solids, production chemicals and heavy metals. It requires treatment before disposal or reuse. The document outlines various separation and treatment technologies used, including settling, flotation, filtration and advanced processes. It provides guidelines for selecting technologies based on water characteristics and disposal criteria. Future developments discussed include downhole separation and subsea treatment to reduce volumes brought to the surface.
There are three primary techniques of EOR: gas injection, thermal injection, and chemical injection. Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide (CO2), accounts for nearly 60 percent of EOR production in the United States. Thermal injection, which involves the introduction of heat, accounts for 40 percent of EOR production in the United States, with most of it occurring in California. Chemical injection, which can involve the use of long-chained molecules called polymers to increase the effectiveness of waterfloods, accounts for about one percent of EOR production in the United States. In 2013, a technique called Plasma-Pulse technology was introduced into the United States from Russia. This technique can result in another 50 percent of improvement in existing well production.
There are three primary techniques of EOR: gas injection, thermal injection, and chemical injection. Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide (CO2), accounts for nearly 60 percent of EOR production in the United States. Thermal injection, which involves the introduction of heat, accounts for 40 percent of EOR production in the United States, with most of it occurring in California. Chemical injection, which can involve the use of long-chained molecules called polymers to increase the effectiveness of waterfloods, accounts for about one percent of EOR production in the United States. In 2013, a technique called Plasma-Pulse technology was introduced into the United States from Russia. This technique can result in another 50 percent of improvement in existing well production.
The problem of water and gas coning has plagued the petroleum industry for decades. Water or gas encroachment in oil zone and thus simultaneous production of oil & water or oil & gas is a major technical, environmental and economic problems associated with oil and gas production. This can limit the productive life of the oil and gas wells and can cause severe problems including corrosion of tubulars, fine migration, hydrostatic loading etc. The environmental impact of handling, treating and disposing of the produced water can seriously affect the economics of the production. Commonly, the reservoirs have an aquifer beneath the zone of hydrocarbon. While producing from oil zone, there develops a low pressure zone as a result of which the water zone starts coning upwards and gas zone cones down towards the production perforation in oil zone and thus reducing the oil production. Pressure enhanced capillary transition zone enlargement around the wellbore is responsible for the concurrent production. This also results in the loss of water drive and gas drive to a certain extent.
Numerous technologies have been developed to control unwanted water and gas coning. In order to design an effective strategy to control the coning of oil or gas, it is important to understand the mechanism of coning of oil and gas in reservoirs by developing a model of it. Non-Darcy flow effect (NDFE), vertical permeability, aquifer size, density of well perforation, and flow behind casing increase water coning/inflow to wells in homogeneous gas reservoirs with bottom water are important factors to consider. There are several methods to slow down coning of water and/or gas such as producing at a certain critical rate, polymer injection, Downhole Water Sink (DWS) technology etc.
Shubham Saxena
B.Tech. petroleum Engineering
IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
Reservoir engineers cannot capture full value from waterflood projects on their own. Cross-functional participation from earth sciences, production, drilling, completions, and facility engineering, and operational groups is required to get full value from waterfloods. Waterflood design and operational case histories of cross-functional collaboration are provided that have improved life cycle costs and increased recovery for onshore and offshore waterfloods. The role that water quality, surveillance, reservoir processing rates, and layered reservoir management has on waterflood oil recovery and life cycle costs will be clarified. Techniques to get better performance out of your waterflood will be shared.
Water Injection & Treatment for Tight Oil EOR
EOR choices for light Tight Oil
Potential damage to reservoir and well bore.
Water Specifications & Treatment
Case Studies:
1. Advanced Water Flooding
2. Frac injectors?
3. Low Salinity Water Flooding
Topics Include:
Filtration
Water Quality
Reservoir Pressure
I hope this presentation helps you to understand why we use acidizing process and calculations needed to perform the optimum acidizing .
Any questions contact me at karim.elfarash@std.suezuniv.edu.eg
This must the discovery of the decade. Walnut shells are used to purify water from any sort of Contamination and has been a blessing for the Oil & Gas Sector.
The problem of water and gas coning has plagued the petroleum industry for decades. Water or gas encroachment in oil zone and thus simultaneous production of oil & water or oil & gas is a major technical, environmental and economic problems associated with oil and gas production. This can limit the productive life of the oil and gas wells and can cause severe problems including corrosion of tubulars, fine migration, hydrostatic loading etc. The environmental impact of handling, treating and disposing of the produced water can seriously affect the economics of the production. Commonly, the reservoirs have an aquifer beneath the zone of hydrocarbon. While producing from oil zone, there develops a low pressure zone as a result of which the water zone starts coning upwards and gas zone cones down towards the production perforation in oil zone and thus reducing the oil production. Pressure enhanced capillary transition zone enlargement around the wellbore is responsible for the concurrent production. This also results in the loss of water drive and gas drive to a certain extent.
Numerous technologies have been developed to control unwanted water and gas coning. In order to design an effective strategy to control the coning of oil or gas, it is important to understand the mechanism of coning of oil and gas in reservoirs by developing a model of it. Non-Darcy flow effect (NDFE), vertical permeability, aquifer size, density of well perforation, and flow behind casing increase water coning/inflow to wells in homogeneous gas reservoirs with bottom water are important factors to consider. There are several methods to slow down coning of water and/or gas such as producing at a certain critical rate, polymer injection, Downhole Water Sink (DWS) technology etc.
Shubham Saxena
B.Tech. petroleum Engineering
IIT (ISM) Dhanbad
Reservoir engineers cannot capture full value from waterflood projects on their own. Cross-functional participation from earth sciences, production, drilling, completions, and facility engineering, and operational groups is required to get full value from waterfloods. Waterflood design and operational case histories of cross-functional collaboration are provided that have improved life cycle costs and increased recovery for onshore and offshore waterfloods. The role that water quality, surveillance, reservoir processing rates, and layered reservoir management has on waterflood oil recovery and life cycle costs will be clarified. Techniques to get better performance out of your waterflood will be shared.
Water Injection & Treatment for Tight Oil EOR
EOR choices for light Tight Oil
Potential damage to reservoir and well bore.
Water Specifications & Treatment
Case Studies:
1. Advanced Water Flooding
2. Frac injectors?
3. Low Salinity Water Flooding
Topics Include:
Filtration
Water Quality
Reservoir Pressure
I hope this presentation helps you to understand why we use acidizing process and calculations needed to perform the optimum acidizing .
Any questions contact me at karim.elfarash@std.suezuniv.edu.eg
This must the discovery of the decade. Walnut shells are used to purify water from any sort of Contamination and has been a blessing for the Oil & Gas Sector.
General Water Treatment For Cooling Water
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
4 CHOICE OF COOLING SYSTEM
4.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
4.2 Open Evaporative Recirculating Systems
4.3 Closed Recirculating Systems
4.4 Comparison of Cooling Systems
5 MAKE-UP WATER QUALITY
6 FOULING PROCESSES
6.1 Deposition
6.2 Scaling
6.3 Corrosion
6.4 Biological Growth
7 CONTROL OF THE COOLING SYSTEM
7.1 ‘Once through' Cooling Systems
7.2 Closed Recirculating Systems
7.3 Open Evaporative Cooling Systems
TABLES
1 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF FOULING PROCESSES AND INSTALLED COSTS
2 WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
FIGURES
1 PREDICTION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE SCALING
2 CALCIUM SULFATE SOLUBILITY
3 CALCIUM PHOSPHATE SCALING INDEX
Large Water Pumps
CONTENTS
1 SCOPE
SECTION ONE: INTEGRATION OF PUMPS INTO THE PROCESS
2 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
2.1 Cooling Water
2.2 Brine
2.3 Estuary Water
2.4 Harbor Water
2.5 Oil-field water
3 CALCULATION OF DUTY
4 CHOICE OF TYPE AND NUMBER OF PUMPS
4.1 Type of Pump
4.2 Points to Consider
4.3 Number of Pumps
5 RECOMMENDED LINE DIAGRAM
5.1 Check List for Each Pump
6 RECOMMENDED LAYOUT
SECTION TWO: CONSTRUCTION FEATURES
7 HORIZONTAL, AXIALLY SPLIT CASING PUMPS
7.1 Pressure Casing
7.2 Bolting
7.3 Flanges and Connections
7.4 Rotating Elements
7.5 Wear Rings
7.6 Running Clearances
7.7 Mechanical Seals
7.8 Packed Glands
7.9 Bearings and Bearing Housings
7.10 Lubrication
7.11 Couplings
7.12 Guards
7.13 Baseplates
7.14 Flywheels
8 VERTICAL PUMPS
8.1 General
8.2 Pressure Casing
8.3 Bolting
8.4 Flanges and Connections
8.5 Rotating Element
8.6 Packed Glands
8.7 Bearings and Bearing Housings
8.8 Pump Head
8.9 Column Pipes
8.10 Line Shaft and Couplings
8.11 Reverse Rotation
8.12 Gearboxes
9 MATERIALS
9.1 Castings
9.2 Casings
9.3 Impellers
9.4 Shafts
9.5 Shaft Sleeves
9.6 Bolts and Nuts
10 DRIVERS
10.1 Electric Motor Drives
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES:
A COOLING WATER - EUROPEAN SITE
B TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY
C FLYWHEEL INERTIA FOR PRESSURE SURGE ABATEMENT
D RESIN COATING OF CASINGS FOR WATER PUMPS
E AREA RATIO METHOD
F NOTES ON PUMP IMPELLERS CASTINGS
G LIMIT ON SHAFT DIAMETER FOR HORIZONTAL PUMPS HAVING
ONE DOUBLE-ENTRY IMPELLER SUPPORTED BETWEEN BEARINGS
H FORCES AND BENDING MOMENTS ON RISING MAIN ASSEMBLY
I POWER COSTS
J PUTATIVE COST COMPARISON SHEET
K TECHNICAL COMPARISON SHEETS
FIGURES
2.1 VAPOR TEMPERATURE CURVES
2.2 DENSITY TEMPERATURE CURVES
3.1 TYPICAL HEAD OF PUMPS
3.2 TOTAL HEAD OF VERTICAL IMMERSED PUMP
3.3 TYPICAL TIDAL RIVER ESTUARY LEVELS
3.5 SUBMERGENCE LIMITS
4.1 TYPES OF PUMP
4.2 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
5.1 TYPICAL LINE DIAGRAM
6 GUIDE TO SUCTION PIPEWORK DESIGN
7 CASING AND IMPELLER DETAILS
8.1 DRY WELL AND WET WELL PUMP INSTALLATIONS
8.2 BELLMOUTH DIMENSIONS FOR VERTICAL INTAKES
8.3 MAXIMUM SPACING BETWEEN SHAFT GUIDE BUSHING
8.4 LINE SHAFT COUPLING
9 TYPICAL VOLUTE CASING
10 TYPICAL CASE WEAR RINGS
11 SEAL AREA
TABLES
1 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (25% W/W)
2 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (20% W/W)
3 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (16.25% W/W)
4 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (15% W/W)
5 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (10% W/W)
6 LIQUID PROPERTIES SODIUM CHLORIDE (5% W/W)
7 GUIDE TO PUMP TYPE AND SPEED
8 RECOMMENDED CAST MATERIALS FOR USE IN THE PUMP INDUSTRY
GRAPHS
1 GUIDE TO ROTOR INERTIA
2 LIMITS BETWEEN BEARINGS
DOCUMENTS REFERRED TO IN THIS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT DESIGN GUIDE
Water & Wastewater: Innovation for Resilience and Adoption to Climate ChangePurite
As an expanding world and climate change places increasing pressure on the amount of fresh water available.
There is a growing recognition and understanding across the developed world that a scarcity of fresh water is no longer just an issue for those sun scorched countries where drought and famine has long been a common strand of the socio-economic infrastructure.
While in the UK and many regions of Europe there has been a great deal of attention paid to electricity being the resource in shortest supply, the focus is adjusting to that of water. And not before time.
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF A...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE SELECTION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY FOR THE TREATMENT OF AQUEOUS ORGANIC EFFLUENT STREAMS
CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION/PURPOSE
1 SCOPE
2 FIELD OF APPLICATION
3 DEFINITIONS
3.1 IPU
3.2 AOS
3.3 BODs
3.4 COD
3.5 TOC
3.6 Toxicity
3.7 Refractory Organics/Hard COD
3.8 Heavy Metals
3.9 EA
3.10 Biological Treatment Terms
3.11 BATNEEC
3.12 BPEO
3.13 EQS/LV
3.14 IPC
3.15 VOC
3.16 F/M Ratio
3.17 MLSS
3.18 MLVSS
4 DESIGN/ECONOMIC GUIDELINES
5 EUROPEAN LEGISLATION
5.1 General
5.2 Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)
5.3 Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Costs (BATNEEC)
5.4 Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO)
5.5 Environmental Quality Standards(EQS)
6 IPU EXIT CONCENTRATION
7 SITE/LOCAL REQUIREMENTS
8 PROCESS SELECTION PROCEDURE
8.1 Waste Minimization Techniques (WMT)
8.2 AOS Stream Definition
8.3 Technical Check List
8.4 Preliminary Selection of Suitable Technologies
8.5 Process Sequences
8.6 Economic Evaluation
8.7 Process Selection
APPENDICES
A DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 1
B DIRECTIVE 76/464/EEC - LIST 2
C THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION PRIORITY CANDIDATE LIST
D THE UK RED LIST
E CURRENT VALUES FOR EUROPEAN COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS AND CORRESPONDING LIMIT VALUES
F ESTABLISHED TECHNOLOGIES
G EMERGING TECHNOLOGY
H PROPRIETARY/LESS COMMON TECHNOLOGIES
J COMPARATIVE COST DATA
Ammonia Plant Technology
Pre-Commissioning Best Practices
Piping and Vessels Flushing and Cleaning Procedure
CONTENTS
1 Scope
2 Aim/purpose
3 Responsibilities
4 Procedure
4.1 Main cleaning methods
4.1.1 Mechanical cleaning
4.1.2 Cleaning with air
4.1.3 Cleaning with steam (for steam networks only)
4.1.4 Cleaning with water
4.2 Choice of the cleaning method
4.3 Cleaning preparation
4.4 Protection of the devices included in the network
4.5 Protection of devices in the vicinity of the network
4.6 Water flushing procedure
4.6.1 Specific problems of water flushing
4.6.2 Preparation for water flushing
4.6.3 Performing a water flush
4.6.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.7 Air blowing procedure
4.7.1 Specific problems of air blowing
4.7.2 Preparation for air blowing
4.7.3 Performing air blowing
4.7.4 Cleanliness checks
4.8 Steam blowing procedure
4.8.1 Specific problems of steam blowing
4.8.2 Preparation for steam blowing
4.8.3 Performing steam blowing
4.8.4 Cleanliness checks
4.9 Chemical cleaning procedure
4.9.1 Specific problems of cleaning with a chemical solution
4.9.2 Preparation for chemical cleaning
4.9.3 Performing a chemical cleaning
4.9.4 Cleanliness criteria
4.10 Re-assembly - general guideline
4.11 Preservation of flushed piping
Water supplies in the Permian Basin are tightening. 240 counties in Texas are now designated as primary natural disaster areas due to drought. Water recycling technologies are numerous with rapid innovation.We’ve catalogued over 50 different processes used to purify wastewater. There is no one-size-fits-all solution. Freshwater availability, waste disposal costs, and fracturing fluid specifications are just a sample of factors that influence decisions. In this presentation, delivered at the DUG Permian Basin Conference on May 21, 2014, Wilson Perumal & Company Consultant John Hughes presents key elements to consider when developing a comprehensive water management strategy.
Valudor DAF, dissolved air flotation, and SHURE technology combine with proce...William Toomey
FLUID PROCESS OPTIMIZATION with Fine Solids Removal through SHURE Advanced Cavitation Management Technology
and Valudor Process Performance Chemicals Process Water Reuse
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGA...Gerard B. Hawkins
PRACTICAL GUIDE ON THE REDUCTION OF DISCHARGES TO ATMOSPHERE OF VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)
FOREWORD
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 THE NEED FOR VOC CONTROL
3 CONTROL AT SOURCE
3.1 Choice or Solvent
3.2 Venting Arrangements
3.3 Nitrogen Blanketing
3.4 Pump Versus Pneumatic Transfer
3.5 Batch Charging
3.6 Reduction of Volumetric Flow
3.7 Stock Tank Design
4 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
4.1 By Inference or Calculation
4.2 Flow Monitoring Equipment
4.3 Analytical Instruments
4.4 Vent Emissions Database
5 ABATEMENT TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Available Options
5.2 Selection of Preferred Option
5.3 Condensation
5.4 Adsorption
5.5 Absorption
5.6 Thermal Incineration
5.7 Catalytic Oxidation
5.8 Biological Filtration
5.9 Combinations of Process technologies
5.10 Processes Under Development
6 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
7 REFERENCES
Appendix 1. Photochemical Ozone Creation Potentials
Appendix 2. Examples of Adsorption Preliminary Calculations
Appendix 3. Example of Thermal Incineration Heat and Mass Balance
Appendix 4. Cost Correlations
2. Produced water – nature of the problem
Water handling - range of technologies
Water discharge quality specifications
Measurement of oil in water
Criteria for choosing technology(ies)
Key suppliers
Sample concepts in produced water handling
Future developments
Final messages and referrals to more information
3. Mixture of formation water and injected water that is produced to
surface facilities with oil and gas, not including drilling or well
treatment fluids.
Requires surface facilities for separation, treatment and disposal.
Contains dispersed oil, suspended solids, production
chemicals, traces of heavy metals,
dissolved organics (including hydrocarbons)
4. Separation
Treatment
Disposal
Settling
Hydrocyclones
Flotation
Media filtration
Membrane High pressure membranes
Reverse osmosis
Ultrafiltration
Basic
Adsorption
Oxidation / disinfection
Multi-technology processes
Vapour compression
Multieffect distillation
Multistage flash
Ion exchange
Ultraviolet disinfection
Ozonation
Thermal technologies
Company proprietary
processes
Media filters Activated carbon filters
Advanced Biological treatment
Potable water treatment
Offshore - Discharge to sea
Onshore - Evaporation pond
Water re-use
Produced water re-injection
Key references for comparison of technologies
Technical Assessment of Produced Water Treatment Technologies, Colorado School of Mines, Nov 2009
Techniques for the Management of Produced Water from Offshore Installations, OSPAR Commission 2002
5. Dispersed oil in water measured in mg/l or ppm.
Sample regulation from North Sea basin
Set by Oslo Paris Convention (OSPAR) 2002 was
Maximum discharge limit of 30 ppm oil-in-water
with overall discharges reduced by 15% from 1999 levels
Industry-leading standard. Other oil producing regions will have local and national limits
Oil-in-water in ppm is
related to the population
of oil droplets of varying
sizes, in mm.
Oil-in-water
measurement , both in
ppm and mm, is an
emerging field in itself.
Specifications have dealt with dispersed oil so far,
not dissolved hydrocarbons, though the focus is changing
Technology Removes oil droplet sizes
greater than size (microns)
API gravity separator 150
Corrugated plate separator 40
Induced gas flotation without chemical addition 25
Induced gas flotation with chemical addition 3 - 5
Hydrocyclone 10 - 15
Mesh coalescer 5
Media filter 5
Centrifuge 2
Membrane filter 0.01
(US Dept of Energy white paper, 2004, ref. 3, pg 63]
6. ‘Grab sampling’ practices still very common, followed by lab based analysis
techniques e.g. infrared, colourimetric etc.
Online real-time measurement clearly advantageous for process control.
But beset with problems of interference, lack of repeatability and inability to
cope with rapid operational upsets on plant
Characterisation of produced water comparatively underdeveloped –
yet critical to choosing correct treatment method
7. Solution for given oil/gasfield almost always a combination of ‘coarse’
separation and ‘fine’ separation processes.
Difficult to define ‘decision tree’ style selection method because of large
number of criteria and different weighting of each, depending on the
individual oilfield
8. Sample criteria for choosing equipment:
•Off- or on-shore location; OR water is from coal seam gas deposit
•Produced water characterisation (species of ions, contaminants present)
•Volumes of water expected (over field life cycle)
•Any special needs / initiatives of operator company
•Scope for profitable use by re-injecting into reservoir, economic feasibility
thereof
•Local discharge specification; eventual fate of water in the localised
environment
•Scope for re-use of water by local population
•Play-off between equipment cost / available footprint / operability / ease of
maintenance / energy consumption / associated chemicals consumption /
by-products generated
9. Design solutions
Siemens
Veolia Water
Sample equipment suppliers for primary separation
Hydrocyclones Clear Water Group Salter Cyclones
Weir Minerals Alderley Group
API separators WesTech Mercer International
Hydro Flo Technologies
Induced gas flotation Separation Specialists Inc.
EnviroTech Systems ProSep
10. Produced GE O&G greenfield package for BP Iraq, Rumaila field.
Water Wood Group project for unnamed N Sea operator
Re-injection Optimisation of PWRI system modifications increased both
(PWRI) oil production and water injection capacity
Onshore Veolia Water package for Chevron, San Ardo, California
application induced gas flotation - walnut shell filtration –
OPUS ™ technology – to reduce total dissolved solids, boron and hardness
Coal bed Siemens project for PetroCanada, Powder River Basin
Methane Reverse osmosis (RO) and brine recovery RO systems
11. Downhole separation
Subsea separation
Mechanical shutoff of water inflow to well
Chemical shutoff of water inflow to well
Sidetracking of wells
Dual completion wells
Troll pilot subsea unit, ref. 7
Sidetracking of wells, ref. 7
12. Produced water characterisation is key – if online continuous measurement,
even better
Despite above, choice of treatment system is outcome of interplay of criteria
Leading-edge designs seek to prevent the water ever coming to surface
Legislative driver forcing companies to ‘clean up’ – much more so than
economic driver.
Exceptions are water re-injection or water re-use options.
Comparisons of treatment technologies available in References page
13. 1. Report of RPSEA Project 07122-12, An Integrated Framework for Treatment and Management of Produced Water,
Technical Assessmentof Produced Water Treatment Technologies, Colorado School of Mines, Nov 2009
http://aqwatec.mines.edu/research/projects/Tech_Assessment_PW_Treatment_Tech.pdf
2. OSPAR Commission, Offshore Industry Series, Background Document concerning Techniques for the Management of Produced Water
from Offshore Installations, published 2002
http://www.ospar.org/documents/dbase/publications/p00162_Techniques%20for%20the%20management%20of%20Produced%20Water.p
df
3. Argonne National Laboratory, report prepared for US Department of Energy, A White Paper describing Produced Water from Production
of Crude Oil, Natural Gas and Coal Bed Methane, Jan 2004, Sections 5 and 6, pgs 42 - 68
http://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/ProducedWatersWP0401.pdf
4. Tyrie, C.C., Caudle, D.D., Comparing Oil in Water Measurement Methods, Exploration and Production: The Oil and Gas Review 2007,
Issue II, Nov 2007 reproduced in Touch Oil and Gas webpage
http://www.touchoilandgas.com/comparing-water-measurement-methods-a7704-1.html
5. Jangbarwala, J., CBM-Produced Water: A Synopsis of Effects and Opportunities, [Journal of] Water Conditioning and Purification, Dec
2007
http://www.wcponline.com/pdf/0712Jangbarwala.pdf
6. Rice, C.A., Nuccio, V., Water Produced from Coal Bed Methane, US Geological Survey Factsheet FS-156-00, Nov 2000
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0156-00/fs-0156-00.pdf
7. Nature Technology Solution company promotional document, Introduction to Produced Water Treatment
http://naturetechsolution.com/images/introduction_to_produced_water_treatment.pdf
8. Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission and ALL Consulting, report prepared for US Department of Energy, A Guide to Practical
Management of Produced Water from Onshore Operations in the United States, Oct 2006, Sections 4 and 5, pgs 39 – 112
http://fracfocus.org/sites/default/files/publications/a_guide_to_practical_management_of_produced_water_from_onshore_oil_and_gas_o
perations_in_the_united_states.pdf