This document defines key probability terms and concepts. It begins by defining probability as the mathematics of chance that tells us the relative frequency of events. It then defines theoretical, experimental, and subjective probability. Key concepts explained include sample space, events, complementary events, independence, mutually exclusive events, and conditional probability. Examples are provided to illustrate calculating probabilities from tables or Venn diagrams. Conditional probability is demonstrated using a two-packet seed problem represented with a Venn diagram.

1. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
Probability is the mathematics of chance.
It tells us the relative frequency with which we can
expect an event to occur
The greater the probability the more
likely the event will occur.
It can be written as a fraction, decimal, percent,
or ratio.

2. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
Certain
Impossible
1
.5
0
50/50
Probability is the numerical
measure of the likelihood that
the event will occur.
Value is between 0 and 1.
Sum of the probabilities of all events
is 1.

3. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
A probability experiment is an action through which
specific results (counts, measurements, or responses)
are obtained.
The result of a single trial in a probability experiment
is an outcome.
The set of all possible outcomes of a probability
experiment is the sample space, denoted as S.
e.g. All 6 faces of a die: S = { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 }

4. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
An event consists of one or more outcomes and is a
subset of the sample space.
Events are often represented by uppercase letters,
such as A, B, or C.
Notation: The probability that event E will occur is
written P(E) and is read
“the probability of event E.”

5. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
• The Probability of an Event, E:
P(E) =
Number of Event Outcomes
Total Number of Possible Outcomes in S
Consider a pair of Dice
• Each of the Outcomes in the Sample Space are random
ea.ngd. e qPu( a l ly li k e l y t o o)c c=u r.
2 =
1
36
18
(There are 2 ways to get one 6 and the other 4)

6. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
There are three types of probability
1. Theoretical Probability
Theoretical probability is used when each outcome
in a sample space is equally likely to occur.
P(E) =
Number of Event Outcomes
Total Number of Possible Outcomes in S
The Ultimate probability formula 

7. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
There are three types of probability
2. Experimental Probability
Experimental probability is based upon observations
obtained from probability experiments.
P(E) =
Number of Event Occurrences
Total Number of Observations
The experimental probability of an event
E is the relative frequency of event E

8. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
There are three types of probability
3. Subjective Probability
Subjective probability is a probability measure
resulting from intuition, educated guesses, and
estimates.
Therefore, there is no formula to calculate it.
Usually found by consulting an expert.

9. DDeeffiinniittiioonnss
Law of Large Numbers.
As an experiment is repeated over and over, the
experimental probability of an event approaches
the theoretical probability of the event.
The greater the number of trials the more likely
the experimental probability of an event will equal
its theoretical probability.

10. CCoommpplliimmeennttaarryy EEvveennttss
The complement of event E is the set of all
outcomes in a sample space that are not included in
event E.
The complement of event E is denoted by
Properties of Probability:
E¢ or E
P E
£ £
0 ( ) 1
P E P E
+ =
( ) ( ) 1
P E = -
P E
( ) 1 ( )
P E = -
P E
( ) 1 ( )

11. TThhee MMuullttiipplliiccaattiioonn RRuullee
If events A and B are independent, then the
probability of two events, A and B occurring in a
sequence (or simultaneously) is:
P(Aand B) = P(AÇB) = P(A)´ P(B)
This rule can extend to any number of independent
events.
Two events are independent if the occurrence of the
first event does not affect the probability of the
occurrence of the second event.

12. MMuuttuuaallllyy EExxcclluussiivvee
Two events A and B are mutually exclusive if and
only if:
P(AÇB) = 0
In a Venn diagram this means that event A is
disjoint from event B.
A B A B
A and B are M.E.
A and B are not M.E.

13. TThhee AAddddiittiioonn RRuullee
The probability that at least one of the events A
or B will occur, P(A or B), is given by:
P(Aor B) = P(AÈB) = P(A) + P(B) - P(AÇB)
If events A and B are mutually exclusive, then the
addition rule is simplified to:
P(Aor B) = P(AÈB) = P(A) + P(B)
This simplified rule can be extended to any number
of mutually exclusive events.

14. CCoonnddiittiioonnaall PPrroobbaabbiilliittyy
Conditional probability is the probability of an event
occurring, given that another event has already
occurred.
Conditional probability restricts the sample space.
The conditional probability of event B occurring,
given that event A has occurred, is denoted by P(B|
A) and is read as “probability of B, given A.”

15. CCoonnddiittiioonnaall PPrroobbaabbiilliittyy
Formula for Conditional Probability
P A B = P AÇB = Ç
or P B A P B A
( | ) ( )
( )
( | ) ( )
( )
P A
P B

16. CCoonnddiittiioonnaall PPrroobbaabbiilliittyy
e.g. There are 2 red and 3 blue counters in a bag
and, without looking, we take out one counter and
do not replace it.
The probability of a 2nd counter taken from the bag
being red depends on whether the 1st was red or
blue.
Conditional probability problems can be solved by
considering the individual possibilities or by using a
table, a Venn diagram, a tree diagram or a formula.
Harder problems are best solved by using a formula
together with a tree diagram.

17. e.g. 1. The following table gives data on the type of car,
grouped by petrol consumption, owned by 100 people.
Low Medium High
Male 12 33 7
Female 23 21 4
One person is selected at random.
Total
100
L is the event “the person owns a low rated car”

18. e.g. 1. The following table gives data on the type of car,
grouped by petrol consumption, owned by 100 people.
Female
Low
Male
Medium High
12 33 7
23 21 4
One person is selected at random.
Total
100
L is the event “the person owns a low rated car”
F is the event “a female is chosen”.

19. e.g. 1. The following table gives data on the type of car,
grouped by petrol consumption, owned by 100 people.
Female
Low
Male
Medium High
12 33 7
23 21 4
One person is selected at random.
Total
100
L is the event “the person owns a low rated car”
F is the event “a female is chosen”.

20. e.g. 1. The following table gives data on the type of car,
grouped by petrol consumption, owned by 100 people.
Female
Low
Male
Medium High
12 33 7
23 21 4
One person is selected at random.
Total
100
L is the event “the person owns a low rated car”
F is the event “a female is chosen”.
Find (i) P(L) (ii) P(F Ç L) (iii) P(F L)
There is no need for a Venn diagram or a formula to
solve this type of problem.
We just need to be careful which row or column we look at.

21. Low
Medium High Total
Male 12
33 7
Female 23
21 4
100
Solution:
Find (i) P(L) (ii) P(F Ç L) (iii) P(F L)
(i) P(L) =
35
(Best to leave the answers as fractions)
7 =
35 7
100
20 20

22. Solution:
Low Medium High
Male 12 33 7
Find (i) P(L) (ii) P(F Ç L) (iii) P(F L)
(i) P(L) =
100
Female 23
21 4
7 =
35 7
100
20 20
(ii) P(F Ç L) = The probability of selecting a
female with a low rated car.
23
Total
100

23. Solution:
Low Medium High
Male 12
33 7
Female 23
21 4
Find (i) P(L) (ii) P(F Ç L) (iii) P(F L)
(i) P(L) =
35 100
7 =
35 7
100
20 20
(ii) P(F Ç L) =
23
Total
100
23 We must be careful with the
(iii) P(F L) = The probability of selecting a
denominators female given the in (ii) car and is (low iii). rated.
Here
we are given the car is low rated.
We want the total of that column.
35
The sample space is restricted
from 100 to 35.

24. Solution:
Low Medium High
Male 12 33 7
Find (i) P(L) (ii) P(F Ç L) (iii) P(F L)
(i) P(L) =
100
Female 23 21 4
7 =
35 7
100
20 20
(ii) P(F Ç L) =
23
Total
100
(iii) P(F L) =
23
Notice that
P(L) ´ P(F L)
23
35
= 7 ´
20
= 23
100
= P(F Ç L)
So, P(F Ç L) = P(F|L) ´ P(L)
35
5
1

25. e.g. 2. you have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution: Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
Red in the 1st packet

26. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
8
Red in the 1st packet

27. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
8
Blue in the 1st packet

28. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
12 8
Blue in the 1st packet

29. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
12 8
Red in the 2nd packet

30. e.g. 2. You have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
12 8 15
Red in the 2nd packet

31. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
12 8 15
Blue in the 2nd packet

32. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
15
10
12 8
Blue in the 2nd packet

33. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
F R
15
10
12 8
Total: 20 + 25

34. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45
F R
15
10
12 8
Total: 20 + 25

35. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45
F R
15
10
12 8

36. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45 F R
15
10
12 8
P(R Ç F) =

37. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
8 45 F R
15
10
12 8
P(R Ç F) =

38. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
8 45 F R
15
10
12 8
P(R Ç F) =
45

39. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45 F R
15
10
12
P(R Ç F) =
P(R F) = 8
8
45
8

40. e.g. 2. you have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45 F R
15
10
12
P(R Ç F) =
8
45
P(R F) = 8 P(F) =
20
8

41. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45 F R
15
10
12
P(R Ç F) =
8
45
P(R F) = 8 P(F) = 20
20
8

42. e.g. 2. I have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20
seeds and although they look the same, 8 will give red
flowers and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of
which 15 will be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the
conditional probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45 F R
15
10
12
P(R Ç F) =
8
45
P(R F) = 8 P(F) = 20
20
8
45

43. 2. You have 2 packets of seeds. One contains 20 seeds
and although they look the same, 8 will give red flowers
and 12 blue. The 2nd packet has 25 seeds of which 15 will
be red and 10 blue.
Draw a Venn diagram and use it to illustrate the conditional
probability formula.
Solution:
Let R be the event “ Red flower ” and
F be the event “ First packet ”
45 F R
15
10
12
P(R Ç F) =
8
45
P(R F) = 8 P(F) =
20
8
20
45
1
8 ´
20
Þ P(R F) ´ P(F) =
20
45
= 8
45
1
So, P(R Ç F) = P(R|F) ´ P(F)

44. PPrroobbaabbiilliittyy TTrreeee
DDiiaaggrraammss
The probability of a complex event can be found
using a probability tree diagram.
1. Draw the appropriate tree diagram.
2. Assign probabilities to each branch.
(Each section sums to 1.)
3. Multiply the probabilities along individual branches to
find the probability of the outcome at the end of each
branch.
4. Add the probabilities of the relevant
outcomes, depending on the event.

45. E.g. 3. In November, the probability of a man getting to
2
work on time if there is fog on the road is 5 .
If the visibility is good, the probability is 9 .
10
The probability of fog at the time he travels is 3 20
.
(a) Calculate the probability of him arriving on time.
(b) Calculate the probability that there was fog given that
he arrives on time.
There are lots of clues in the question to tell us we are
dealing with conditional probability.

46. e.g. 3. In November, the probability of a man getting
to work on time if there is fog on the road is 2
5 .
9
If the visibility is good, the probability is 10
.
The probability of fog at the time he travels is 3
20
.
(a) Calculate the probability of him arriving on time.
(b) Calculate the probability that there was fog given that
he arrives on time.
There are lots of clues in the question to tell us we are
dealing with conditional probability.
Solution: Let T be the event “ getting to work on time ”
Let F be the event “ fog on the M6 ”
Can you write down the notation for the probabilities
that we want to find in (a) and (b)?

47. (a) Calculate the probability of him arriving on time.
(b) Calculate the probability that there was fog given that
P(F T)
P(T)
he arrives on time.
Can you also write down the notation for the three
“ the probability of a man getting to work on time if
there is fog is 2
5 ”
P(T F) = 2
5
Not foggy
“ If the visibility is good, the probability is 9 ”.
10
P(T F/) = 9
“ The probability of fog at the time he travels is 3 ”.
20
probabilities given in the question?
10
P(F) = 3
20
This is a much harder problem so we draw a tree diagram.

48. P(T F/) = 9
2
5
P(T F) = 2
3
20
17
20
3
9
10
1
10
2
5
3 ´
20
3
5
3 ´
20
9
10
17 ´
20
1
10
17 ´
20
Fog
P(F) = 3
No
Fog Not on
time
5
10
20
5
F
F/
T
T/
T
T/
Each section sums to 1

49. P(T F) = 2
5
P(T F/) = 9
10
P(F) = 3
20
2
5
3
20
17
20
3
9
10
1
10
2
5
3 ´
20
3
5
3 ´
20
9
10
17 ´
20
1
10
17 ´
20
5
F
F/
T
T/
T
T/
Because we only reach the 2nd set of branches
after the 1st set has occurred, the 2nd set
must represent conditional probabilities.

50. (a) Calculate the probability of him arriving on time.
2
5
3
20
17
20
3
9
10
1
10
2
5
3 ´
20
3
5
3 ´
20
9
10
17 ´
20
1
10
17 ´
20
5
F
F/
T
T/
T
T/

51. (a) Calculate the probability of him arriving on time.
2
5
3
20
17
20
3
9
10
1
10
2
3
5
3 ´
3 ´
20
6 =
9
10
17 ´
20
1
10
17 ´
20
5
F
F/
T
T/
T
T/
5
20
100
( foggy and he
arrives on time )

52. 2
5
3
20
17
20
3
9
10
1
10
2
3
5
3 ´
3 ´
20
5
F
F/
T
T/
T
( not foggy and he
arrives T/
on time )
6 =
9
10
17 ´
20
1
10
17 ´
20
5
20
100
(a) Calculate the probability of him arriving on time.
= 153
200
153
6
P ( 165 33
T ) = P ( F Ç T ) + P ( F/ Ç T ) = + =
200
100
200
= 33
40 40

53. (b) Calculate the probability that there was fog given that
P P Ç =
( ( )
Fog on M 6 Getting to work
F
T
3
20
2
5
F T
( )
3 ´ 2
=
P(F Ç T) = 100
From part (a), P(T) = 33
40
6
5
20
he arrives on time.
We need
P( F T )
P P Ç =
( ) ( F T
)
( T
)
F | T
P
Þ P(F T) = 4
55
T
F | T)
P
Þ
33
40
( = 6 ¸ P F T)
100
2 2
40
33
= 6 ´
100
5
11

54. 3. The probability of a maximum temperature of 28° or more
on the 1st day of Wimbledon ( tennis competition! )
3
has been estimated as 8
. The probability of a particular
Aussie player winning on the 1st day if it is below 28° is
3
1
estimated to be 4
but otherwise only .
2
Draw a tree diagram and use it to help solve the following:
(i) the probability of the player winning,
(ii) the probability that, if the player has won, it was at least
28°.
Solution: Let T be the event “ temperature 28° or more ”
Let W be the event “ player wins ”
( ) = 3 Then, P T 4
8
( / ) = 3 P W T
( ) = 1 P W T
2

55. ( ) = 3 Then, P T
3
8
( / ) = 3 P W T
1
2
1
2
3
4
1
4
3
16
( ) = 1 P W T
3 ´ 1
=
2
8
3
16
3 ´ 1
=
2
8
15
32
5 ´ 3
=
4
8
5
32
5 1
´ =
4
8
5
8
W
W/
Sum
= 1
Let T be the event “ temperature 28° or more ”
Let W be the event “ player wins ”
8
4
2
T
T/
W
W/

56. 3
8
1
2
1
2
3
4
1
4
5
W/
(i) P(W) = P(T Ç W) + P(T/ Ç W)
3
16
3 ´ 1
=
2
8
3
16
3 ´ 1
=
2
8
15
32
5 ´ 3
=
4
8
5
32
5 1
´ =
4
8
8
W
T
T/
W
W/

57. 21
32
3
1
1
3
1
3
3 ´ 1
=
3
3 ´ 1
=
15
5 ´ 3
=
5
5 1
´ =
5
W/
(i) P(W) = P(W) + P(T/ W) 3 6 + 15
T Ç Ç = + = =
32
15
32
16
8
2
2
4
4
16
2
8
16
2
8
32
4
8
32
4
8
8
W
T
T/
W
W/

58. P(W) = 21
32
3
8
1
2
1
2
3
4
1
4
3
16
3 ´ 1
=
2
8
3
16
3 ´ 1
=
2
8
15
32
5 ´ 3
=
4
8
5
32
5 1
´ =
4
8
5
8
W
T
T/
W/
W
W/
P P Ç (ii) =
( ) ( T W
)
( W
)
T | W
P

59. P(W) = 21
32
3
1
1
3
1
3 ´ =
3 ´ =
5 ´ =
5 ´ =
5
W/
P ( ) = P ( T Ç W
)
(ii) 32
( W
)
T | W
P
21
Þ ( ) = 3 ¸ P T W
16
8
2
2
4
4
3
16
1
2
8
3
16
1
2
8
15
32
3
4
8
5
32
1
4
8
8
W
T
T/
W
W/

60. 1 2
2 =
7
P(W) = 21
32
3
5
P P Ç (ii) =
( ) ( T W
)
( W
)
T | W
P
32
21
3
3 ´ 1
=
3
3 ´ 1
=
15
5 ´ 3
=
5
5 1
´ =
= 3 ´
16
8
1
2
1
2
3
4
1
4
16
2
8
16
2
8
32
4
8
32
4
8
8
W
T
T/
W/
W
W/
7
21
32 1
Þ ( ) = 3 ¸ P T W
16

61. IInnddeeppeennddeenntt EEvveennttss
We can deduce an important result from the conditional
law of probability:
If B has no effect on A, then, P(A B) = P(A) and we say
the events are independent.
( The probability of A does not depend on B. )
So, P(A|B) = P(A Ç B)
P(B)
becomes P(A) = P(A Ç B)
P(B)
or P(A Ç B) = P(A) ´ P(B)

62. Tests for independence
P(A B) = P(A)
P(A Ç B) = P(A) ´ P(B)
or
IInnddeeppeennddeenntt EEvveennttss
P(B A) = P(B)

63. n x , x , x ,..., x 1 2 3
n p , p , p ,..., p 1 2 3
value of x, E(x), of the experiment
is:
å=
E x =
x p
i i n
i
1
( )
EExxppeecctteedd VVaalluuee
Suppose that the outcomes of an experiment are
real numbers called
and suppose that these outcomes have probabilities
respectively. Then the expected

64. EExxppeecctteedd VVaalluuee
Example
At a raffle, 1500 tickets are sold at $2 each for
four prizes of $500, $250, $150, and $75. What
is the expected value of your gain if you play?
Gain $498 $248 $148 $73 -$2
P(x)
1
1500
1
1500
1
1500
1
1500
1496
1500
( ) 498 1
E x = ´ + ´ + ´ + ´ + - ´
$1.35
2 1496
1500
73 1
1500
148 1
1500
248 1
1500
1500
= -