The document summarizes the history of molecular genetics and DNA structure. It describes early discoveries like Friedrich Miescher extracting nuclein from cells in 1869, Gregor Mendel's work on inheritance in the 1800s, and Thomas Hunt Morgan's work with fruit flies in the early 1900s. It then covers later discoveries such as Frederick Griffith's work on bacterial transformation in 1928, Avery, McCarty and MacLeod's experiments in the 1940s showing DNA is the transforming principle, and Hershey and Chase's 1952 experiment proving DNA carries genetic information. It concludes with Watson and Crick determining the double helix structure of DNA using data from Franklin, Wilkins and Chargaff in 1953.
This document provides an introduction to genomics, proteomics, and comparative genomics. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology involving DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It describes DNA and RNA structure and explains how genetic information flows from DNA to protein. The document also discusses genome sequencing, gene mapping, and how comparative analysis of genomes from different species can provide insights into evolutionary relationships and biological functions.
Gene cloning in agriculture can involve either gene addition or gene subtraction strategies. Gene addition involves introducing new genes into plants to provide beneficial traits, such as insect resistance. One example is using genes from Bacillus thuringiensis that code for insecticidal proteins toxic to insect larvae. Gene subtraction involves inactivating existing plant genes, such as using antisense RNA technology to delay fruit ripening in tomatoes by inactivating genes for polygalacturonase and ethylene synthesis. While gene cloning has benefits, concerns remain regarding the safety of selectable markers and terminator technology.
Primers are short strands of RNA or DNA that serve as starting points for DNA synthesis during DNA replication or PCR. In DNA replication, primers are required for DNA polymerases to add new nucleotides to DNA. Primers are built by primase in short bursts on the lagging strand and allow DNA polymerases to synthesize DNA fragments in the 5' to 3' direction. For PCR, primers must be uniquely designed to target a single region, be 18-24 base pairs long, have a melting temperature of 52-60°C and minimal self-complementarity to avoid unwanted structures and ensure specific amplification.
Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid with one of its parents to produce offspring that are genetically more similar to the parent. It is used in plant and animal breeding to transfer desired traits from a hybrid back into a parent's genetic background. A backcross can be described as BC1, BC2, etc depending on how many times the hybrid has been backcrossed. Backcrossing with the dominant parent will result in all dominant phenotype offspring, while backcrossing with the recessive parent will result in a 1:1 phenotypic ratio.
This document discusses the construction and screening of genomic libraries. It explains that a genomic library contains DNA fragments that represent an organism's entire genome. The library is constructed by isolating, purifying, and fragmenting genomic DNA, then cloning the fragments into suitable vectors. Common vectors for large DNA fragments include lambda phage, YACs, and BACs. The library can then be screened to identify clones containing genes of interest using various methods like hybridization, PCR, or screening for gene expression and complementation. Hybridization methods for screening include colony hybridization and plaque hybridization.
GENETIC MATERIAL refers to the material of which genes are made up of. It includes both DNA and RNA. Though in most of the organism DNA is playing this role, but in certain viruses RNA is storing all the genetic information of the individual. Here we are discussing about the discovery and property of these genetic material.
Restriction enzymes are molecular scissors found in bacteria that cut DNA molecules at specific recognition sequences. They serve as a defensive mechanism for bacteria against bacteriophages by cleaving the phage DNA. There are over 3000 known restriction enzymes that are classified into four main types based on their composition, cofactors, and cutting mechanisms. Restriction enzymes are important tools in biotechnology for manipulating DNA sequences through cutting DNA fragments with specific sticky or blunt ends, which can then be recombined through techniques like cloning.
The document summarizes the history of molecular genetics and DNA structure. It describes early discoveries like Friedrich Miescher extracting nuclein from cells in 1869, Gregor Mendel's work on inheritance in the 1800s, and Thomas Hunt Morgan's work with fruit flies in the early 1900s. It then covers later discoveries such as Frederick Griffith's work on bacterial transformation in 1928, Avery, McCarty and MacLeod's experiments in the 1940s showing DNA is the transforming principle, and Hershey and Chase's 1952 experiment proving DNA carries genetic information. It concludes with Watson and Crick determining the double helix structure of DNA using data from Franklin, Wilkins and Chargaff in 1953.
This document provides an introduction to genomics, proteomics, and comparative genomics. It discusses the central dogma of molecular biology involving DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It describes DNA and RNA structure and explains how genetic information flows from DNA to protein. The document also discusses genome sequencing, gene mapping, and how comparative analysis of genomes from different species can provide insights into evolutionary relationships and biological functions.
Gene cloning in agriculture can involve either gene addition or gene subtraction strategies. Gene addition involves introducing new genes into plants to provide beneficial traits, such as insect resistance. One example is using genes from Bacillus thuringiensis that code for insecticidal proteins toxic to insect larvae. Gene subtraction involves inactivating existing plant genes, such as using antisense RNA technology to delay fruit ripening in tomatoes by inactivating genes for polygalacturonase and ethylene synthesis. While gene cloning has benefits, concerns remain regarding the safety of selectable markers and terminator technology.
Primers are short strands of RNA or DNA that serve as starting points for DNA synthesis during DNA replication or PCR. In DNA replication, primers are required for DNA polymerases to add new nucleotides to DNA. Primers are built by primase in short bursts on the lagging strand and allow DNA polymerases to synthesize DNA fragments in the 5' to 3' direction. For PCR, primers must be uniquely designed to target a single region, be 18-24 base pairs long, have a melting temperature of 52-60°C and minimal self-complementarity to avoid unwanted structures and ensure specific amplification.
Backcrossing involves crossing a hybrid with one of its parents to produce offspring that are genetically more similar to the parent. It is used in plant and animal breeding to transfer desired traits from a hybrid back into a parent's genetic background. A backcross can be described as BC1, BC2, etc depending on how many times the hybrid has been backcrossed. Backcrossing with the dominant parent will result in all dominant phenotype offspring, while backcrossing with the recessive parent will result in a 1:1 phenotypic ratio.
This document discusses the construction and screening of genomic libraries. It explains that a genomic library contains DNA fragments that represent an organism's entire genome. The library is constructed by isolating, purifying, and fragmenting genomic DNA, then cloning the fragments into suitable vectors. Common vectors for large DNA fragments include lambda phage, YACs, and BACs. The library can then be screened to identify clones containing genes of interest using various methods like hybridization, PCR, or screening for gene expression and complementation. Hybridization methods for screening include colony hybridization and plaque hybridization.
GENETIC MATERIAL refers to the material of which genes are made up of. It includes both DNA and RNA. Though in most of the organism DNA is playing this role, but in certain viruses RNA is storing all the genetic information of the individual. Here we are discussing about the discovery and property of these genetic material.
Restriction enzymes are molecular scissors found in bacteria that cut DNA molecules at specific recognition sequences. They serve as a defensive mechanism for bacteria against bacteriophages by cleaving the phage DNA. There are over 3000 known restriction enzymes that are classified into four main types based on their composition, cofactors, and cutting mechanisms. Restriction enzymes are important tools in biotechnology for manipulating DNA sequences through cutting DNA fragments with specific sticky or blunt ends, which can then be recombined through techniques like cloning.
The document discusses various applications of biotechnology including therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture, and more. It also discusses three critical areas of biotechnology research: providing improved organisms as catalysts, creating optimal conditions for catalysts, and downstream processing technologies. The document then discusses options for increasing food production and how genetically modified crops are seen as a solution. It provides details on genetically modified organisms and Bt cotton as an example, describing how Bt genes provide insect resistance. The document also discusses using RNA interference to protect plants from parasites and the use of recombinant DNA technology in healthcare applications like producing insulin through E. coli. It covers gene therapy, PCR, ELISA, transgenic animals and their uses as well as
This document presents information on complementation tests. It defines complementation tests as a method used to determine if two mutations are in the same gene or different genes. It explains that if the mutations are complementary (in different genes), the offspring will show the parental phenotypes, but if they are not complementary (in the same gene), the offspring will show a new phenotype. Three examples of using complementation test results to determine the number of genes involved are provided. The document concludes by citing a reference for more information on assigning mutations to genes using complementation tests.
Introduction :
Mendel and subsequent workers assumed that a character was governed by a single gene.
But it was later discovered that many characters in almost all the organisms are governed by two or more genes. Such gene affect the development of concerned characters in various ways.
The phenomenon of two or more gene affecting the expression of each other in various ways in the development of a single character of on organism is known as gene interaction.
Lethal alleles are genes that cause death or reduced viability. Some cause death early in development while others act later. Mutation of essential genes creates lethal alleles. They can be dominant or recessive. Recessive lethals only kill in the homozygous state, while dominant lethals kill in both homo- and heterozygotes. Lethal alleles were first discovered by Cuénot in mice and provided insight into Mendelian inheritance. Different types include recessive, dominant, conditional, sex-linked, and synthetic lethals. Inbreeding increases homozygosity while outbreeding increases heterozygosity and hybrid vigor. Both provide variation for natural selection to act upon.
Boyd 2014 [16] Record linkage is the process of bringing together data relating to the same individual from within and between different datasets. When a unique person-based identifier exists, linkage can be achieved by simply merging datasets on the identifier.
Linkage is the close association of genes or other DNA sequences on the same chromosome. The closer two genes are to each other on the chromosome, the greater the probability that they will be inherited together.
The two different types of linkage are:
Complete linkage.
Incomplete linkage.
“Linkage and recombination are the phenomena that describe the inheritance of genes.”
The document describes the nucleosome solenoid model of DNA packaging in eukaryotic cells. It proposes that DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which then further condense to form a solenoid fiber in a "beads on a string" structure. This allows the long DNA molecule to tightly pack into the small nucleus. DNA is first packaged into nucleosomes, then into solenoid fibers and further into higher order structures like chromatin and chromosomes.
The document discusses the evidence that led scientists to determine that DNA is the genetic material of living organisms. It describes key experiments including Griffith's experiment with pneumonia bacteria strains that showed cell debris could transform one strain into another, and Hershey and Chase's experiment using bacteriophage that demonstrated viral DNA, not proteins, enters host cells to direct new virus production. The document also reviews various lines of evidence that supported DNA as the carrier of hereditary information, such as its location in cell nuclei and ability to accurately replicate.
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring through cytoplasmic organelles like chloroplasts and mitochondria, rather than through nuclear genes. Three examples are given: (1) variegated leaves in four o'clock plants are inherited cytoplasmically, (2) streptomycin resistance in Chlamydomonas is inherited through chloroplasts, and (3) "poky" phenotype and abnormal cytochromes in Neurospora are inherited maternally through mitochondria. Cytoplasmic inheritance can also cause traits like cytoplasmic male sterility in plants. Maternal effects occur when the female parent's genotype influences offspring traits regardless of the male parent's genotype.
Dear students, in this ppt you will able to understand about the Incomplete dominance. Incomplete dominance is an allelic interaction. In incomplete dominance, both alleles of a character express their character in the F1 generation.
1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
This document discusses the principles and processes of biotechnology. It defines biotechnology as using living systems to develop useful products. The oldest form is using fermentation to produce wine and beer. Modern biotechnology relies on genetic engineering techniques like altering DNA/RNA to introduce genes into hosts, and maintaining sterile conditions for large-scale microbial growth. Key tools include restriction enzymes for cutting DNA, vectors like plasmids for transferring genes, PCR for amplifying genes, and making host cells competent for DNA uptake. The process involves isolating DNA, cutting it with enzymes, inserting the fragment into a vector, transferring to a host, and obtaining the target product.
This document discusses recombinant DNA technology. It describes how recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA fragments from different organisms. The basic steps are: 1) isolating a gene of interest, 2) inserting the fragment into a carrier DNA molecule to generate recombinant DNA, 3) transferring the recombinant DNA into E. coli host cells, and 4) selecting host cells carrying the recombinant DNA. Key tools used are restriction enzymes, which cut DNA at specific sites; vectors like plasmids, which are self-replicating DNA molecules that act as carriers; and host cells like E. coli bacteria.
the speed and ease of use, sensitivity, specificity and robustness of PCR has revolutionized molecular biology and made PCR the most useful and powerful technique with great spectrum of research and diagnostic applications.
LINKAGE AND CROSSING-OVER SMG
A brief description of Linkage - Bateson and Punnett's Experiment on Sweet pea, Lathyrus odoratus, Coupling and Repulsion Theory, Complete and Incomplete Linkage, Significance of Linkage, Crossing-over: Cytological basis, Types, Factors influencing the frequency , Significance, Mitotic crossing-over
Introduction to real-Time Quantitative PCR (qPCR) - Download the slidesQIAGEN
This slidedeck introduces the concepts of real-time PCR and how to conduct a real-time PCR assay. The topics that are covered include an overview of real-time PCR chemistries, protocols, quantification methods, real-time PCR applications and factors for success.
Genetic linkage is the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction.
GM crops are debated for their environmental impacts. Potential benefits include reduced pesticide use from Bt crops and conservation tillage from herbicide-tolerant varieties. However, risks include Bt toxin harming non-target species like butterflies, the development of pest resistance, and herbicide-tolerant weeds. Comprehensive environmental assessments are needed to understand both risks and benefits of each GM trait.
1. The document discusses microbial genetics and the flow of genetic information. It defines key terms like genetics, genes, genome, genotype, and phenotype.
2. It describes the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information as a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides. DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves unwinding the strands, creating an RNA primer, and synthesizing new strands in the 5' to 3' direction.
3. The process of transcription is described, where RNA polymerase reads the genetic code from DNA and synthesizes mRNA, which is then translated to produce proteins. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo transcription but differ in initiation, processing, and coupling with
The document discusses various applications of biotechnology including therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture, and more. It also discusses three critical areas of biotechnology research: providing improved organisms as catalysts, creating optimal conditions for catalysts, and downstream processing technologies. The document then discusses options for increasing food production and how genetically modified crops are seen as a solution. It provides details on genetically modified organisms and Bt cotton as an example, describing how Bt genes provide insect resistance. The document also discusses using RNA interference to protect plants from parasites and the use of recombinant DNA technology in healthcare applications like producing insulin through E. coli. It covers gene therapy, PCR, ELISA, transgenic animals and their uses as well as
This document presents information on complementation tests. It defines complementation tests as a method used to determine if two mutations are in the same gene or different genes. It explains that if the mutations are complementary (in different genes), the offspring will show the parental phenotypes, but if they are not complementary (in the same gene), the offspring will show a new phenotype. Three examples of using complementation test results to determine the number of genes involved are provided. The document concludes by citing a reference for more information on assigning mutations to genes using complementation tests.
Introduction :
Mendel and subsequent workers assumed that a character was governed by a single gene.
But it was later discovered that many characters in almost all the organisms are governed by two or more genes. Such gene affect the development of concerned characters in various ways.
The phenomenon of two or more gene affecting the expression of each other in various ways in the development of a single character of on organism is known as gene interaction.
Lethal alleles are genes that cause death or reduced viability. Some cause death early in development while others act later. Mutation of essential genes creates lethal alleles. They can be dominant or recessive. Recessive lethals only kill in the homozygous state, while dominant lethals kill in both homo- and heterozygotes. Lethal alleles were first discovered by Cuénot in mice and provided insight into Mendelian inheritance. Different types include recessive, dominant, conditional, sex-linked, and synthetic lethals. Inbreeding increases homozygosity while outbreeding increases heterozygosity and hybrid vigor. Both provide variation for natural selection to act upon.
Boyd 2014 [16] Record linkage is the process of bringing together data relating to the same individual from within and between different datasets. When a unique person-based identifier exists, linkage can be achieved by simply merging datasets on the identifier.
Linkage is the close association of genes or other DNA sequences on the same chromosome. The closer two genes are to each other on the chromosome, the greater the probability that they will be inherited together.
The two different types of linkage are:
Complete linkage.
Incomplete linkage.
“Linkage and recombination are the phenomena that describe the inheritance of genes.”
The document describes the nucleosome solenoid model of DNA packaging in eukaryotic cells. It proposes that DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which then further condense to form a solenoid fiber in a "beads on a string" structure. This allows the long DNA molecule to tightly pack into the small nucleus. DNA is first packaged into nucleosomes, then into solenoid fibers and further into higher order structures like chromatin and chromosomes.
The document discusses the evidence that led scientists to determine that DNA is the genetic material of living organisms. It describes key experiments including Griffith's experiment with pneumonia bacteria strains that showed cell debris could transform one strain into another, and Hershey and Chase's experiment using bacteriophage that demonstrated viral DNA, not proteins, enters host cells to direct new virus production. The document also reviews various lines of evidence that supported DNA as the carrier of hereditary information, such as its location in cell nuclei and ability to accurately replicate.
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic traits from parent to offspring through cytoplasmic organelles like chloroplasts and mitochondria, rather than through nuclear genes. Three examples are given: (1) variegated leaves in four o'clock plants are inherited cytoplasmically, (2) streptomycin resistance in Chlamydomonas is inherited through chloroplasts, and (3) "poky" phenotype and abnormal cytochromes in Neurospora are inherited maternally through mitochondria. Cytoplasmic inheritance can also cause traits like cytoplasmic male sterility in plants. Maternal effects occur when the female parent's genotype influences offspring traits regardless of the male parent's genotype.
Dear students, in this ppt you will able to understand about the Incomplete dominance. Incomplete dominance is an allelic interaction. In incomplete dominance, both alleles of a character express their character in the F1 generation.
1. Eukaryotic DNA contains repetitive and non-repetitive segments. Repetitive DNA makes up around 50% of the human genome and consists of sequences that are present in copies numbering over a million.
2. Repetitive DNA is divided into highly, moderately, and uniquely repetitive sequences based on copy number. Highly repetitive sequences are present in over 100,000 copies and include satellite and centromeric DNA. Moderately repetitive sequences have between 100-10,000 copies, like ribosomal RNA genes.
3. Non-repetitive or unique sequences make up around 50% of the human genome and contain protein-coding genes and other sequences required for gene expression that generally exist in only
This document discusses the principles and processes of biotechnology. It defines biotechnology as using living systems to develop useful products. The oldest form is using fermentation to produce wine and beer. Modern biotechnology relies on genetic engineering techniques like altering DNA/RNA to introduce genes into hosts, and maintaining sterile conditions for large-scale microbial growth. Key tools include restriction enzymes for cutting DNA, vectors like plasmids for transferring genes, PCR for amplifying genes, and making host cells competent for DNA uptake. The process involves isolating DNA, cutting it with enzymes, inserting the fragment into a vector, transferring to a host, and obtaining the target product.
This document discusses recombinant DNA technology. It describes how recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA fragments from different organisms. The basic steps are: 1) isolating a gene of interest, 2) inserting the fragment into a carrier DNA molecule to generate recombinant DNA, 3) transferring the recombinant DNA into E. coli host cells, and 4) selecting host cells carrying the recombinant DNA. Key tools used are restriction enzymes, which cut DNA at specific sites; vectors like plasmids, which are self-replicating DNA molecules that act as carriers; and host cells like E. coli bacteria.
the speed and ease of use, sensitivity, specificity and robustness of PCR has revolutionized molecular biology and made PCR the most useful and powerful technique with great spectrum of research and diagnostic applications.
LINKAGE AND CROSSING-OVER SMG
A brief description of Linkage - Bateson and Punnett's Experiment on Sweet pea, Lathyrus odoratus, Coupling and Repulsion Theory, Complete and Incomplete Linkage, Significance of Linkage, Crossing-over: Cytological basis, Types, Factors influencing the frequency , Significance, Mitotic crossing-over
Introduction to real-Time Quantitative PCR (qPCR) - Download the slidesQIAGEN
This slidedeck introduces the concepts of real-time PCR and how to conduct a real-time PCR assay. The topics that are covered include an overview of real-time PCR chemistries, protocols, quantification methods, real-time PCR applications and factors for success.
Genetic linkage is the tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together during the meiosis phase of sexual reproduction.
GM crops are debated for their environmental impacts. Potential benefits include reduced pesticide use from Bt crops and conservation tillage from herbicide-tolerant varieties. However, risks include Bt toxin harming non-target species like butterflies, the development of pest resistance, and herbicide-tolerant weeds. Comprehensive environmental assessments are needed to understand both risks and benefits of each GM trait.
1. The document discusses microbial genetics and the flow of genetic information. It defines key terms like genetics, genes, genome, genotype, and phenotype.
2. It describes the structure of DNA and how it carries genetic information as a double-stranded molecule made up of nucleotides. DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves unwinding the strands, creating an RNA primer, and synthesizing new strands in the 5' to 3' direction.
3. The process of transcription is described, where RNA polymerase reads the genetic code from DNA and synthesizes mRNA, which is then translated to produce proteins. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes undergo transcription but differ in initiation, processing, and coupling with
“This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest.”
This may be the science most famous statement, which appeared in April 1953 in the scientific paper where James Watson and Francis Crick presented the structure of the DNA-helix.
“It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material."
DNA repair systems are critical for correcting damage to DNA that occurs naturally. There are multiple DNA repair mechanisms that have been discovered, including direct reversal of damage, mismatch repair, recombinational repair, and excision repair. Excision repair involves removing damaged sections of DNA. It is a conserved process in prokaryotes and eukaryotes that utilizes DNA glycosylases to recognize and remove damaged bases, AP endonucleases to excise areas around the damaged bases, DNA polymerase to fill in the gaps, and DNA ligase to seal the gaps.
DNA repair systems are essential for maintaining the integrity of genetic information. There are multiple pathways for repairing different types of DNA damage:
1) Mismatch repair corrects errors made during DNA replication by using methylation patterns to distinguish the template strand.
2) Base-excision repair involves DNA glycosylases that remove damaged bases, leaving abasic sites that are then repaired.
3) Nucleotide-excision repair removes larger distortions in the DNA double helix.
4) Direct repair mechanisms like photoreactivation can directly reverse some types of damage using light or chemical processes, without removing nucleotides. DNA repair pathways help prevent mutations and ensure fidelity of genetic information.
The document discusses the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein. It describes the process of DNA replication, including initiation, elongation, and termination. DNA replication is semiconservative and bidirectional, with the leading strand synthesized continuously and the lagging strand synthesized discontinuously in fragments. The mechanisms of DNA replication are largely similar between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
DNA contains the genetic instructions for all living organisms. It is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides containing bases, sugars, and phosphates. The sequence of these bases encodes genetic information in a code that is read by processes like transcription and translation. DNA is organized into structures like chromosomes and is replicated before cell division to ensure each new cell contains the same DNA sequence.
The document provides an overview of the structure and functions of the cell nucleus. It discusses how DNA is tightly packaged into chromosomes through winding around histone proteins to form nucleosomes and chromatin fibers. This compact packaging allows the 100 trillion meters of DNA in the human body to fit within cell nuclei. The nucleus contains DNA, which directs gene expression, DNA replication, and cell division. RNA carries DNA's genetic instructions out of the nucleus to direct protein synthesis. Key concepts covered include DNA and RNA structure, DNA replication, transcription, translation, and the central dogma of molecular biology.
This document provides an overview of molecular biology and DNA replication. It defines molecular biology as the branch of biology dealing with macromolecules essential to life like nucleic acids. Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides with a pentose sugar, phosphate group and nitrogenous base. DNA contains the genetic instructions and is replicated before cell division in a semi-conservative process where the parental DNA strands separate and each acts as a template for a new complementary strand. DNA replication involves enzymes like DNA polymerase and helicase and occurs through initiation, elongation and termination steps to produce two identical copies of DNA.
The document provides an overview of molecular biology and discusses several key topics:
1) It discusses how cells organize and package DNA within the nucleus and replicate it during cell division.
2) Genome organization, including introns, exons, satellites and repetitive DNA is covered. Chromatin structure and packaging is also discussed.
3) DNA interacts with proteins through specific and non-specific binding. DNA is organized into chromatin through interactions with histone proteins in eukaryotes and other proteins in prokaryotes.
Watson and Crick DNA model, Nucleic acids, Nucleotides, Nucleosides, Pyrimidi...AbhayKishoreKaul
This presentation provides an overview of DNA structure and functions. It discusses that DNA is composed of nucleotides that form a double helix, and carries genetic instructions. It also summarizes key aspects of DNA such as the discovery of its structure by Watson and Crick, the four bases that form base pairs, the three types of DNA, transcription, translation, replication, and how DNA makes proteins. The discovery of DNA has revolutionized fields like genetics, biotechnology, and holds promise for advances in medicine, agriculture and more.
DNA replication is the most important process central dogma in the molecular genetics. So i hope this power point presentation useful to the students of B.Sc Agriculture and M.Sc Genetics and Plant Breeding.
This document discusses nucleotides, nucleic acids, and heredity. It begins by explaining that cells contain thousands of proteins and chromosomes carry hereditary information in genes made of DNA and histone proteins. The document then discusses that DNA carries genetic information in genes and each gene controls one protein. It describes the basic components and structures of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, including nucleotides, bases, nucleosides, and primary and secondary structures. It explains how DNA replicates and is amplified through PCR. The roles of different RNA types and protein synthesis are covered. The document concludes by discussing DNA repair through the base excision repair pathway.
DNA replication in prokaryotes involves unwinding the DNA double helix at the origin of replication by helicase. This forms replication forks where leading and lagging strands are synthesized. The leading strand is replicated continuously while the lagging strand forms Okazaki fragments which are later joined by ligase. Replication terminates when the replication forks meet at positions opposite to the origin. Key enzymes include DNA polymerase III, helicase, primase, and ligase.
Replication begins at the origin of replication (oriC) and proceeds bidirectionally. It is semiconservative, meaning each parental DNA strand serves as a template for a new complementary strand. Specialized enzymes help unwind and copy the DNA, with DNA polymerase adding nucleotides to growing strands using DNA primers. DNA ligase then joins fragments together to complete replication. Errors are corrected through proofreading. Replication and repair mechanisms help preserve genetic information as cells divide.
DNA replication is a highly regulated process that occurs semiconservatively before cell division. It involves unwinding of the DNA double helix by helicases, followed by synthesis of new strands complementary to each parental strand. This is carried out by DNA polymerases that add nucleotides according to base pairing rules. In eukaryotes, the lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously in fragments called Okazaki fragments which are later joined by DNA ligase. DNA replication ensures faithful transmission of genetic material to daughter cells.
DNA is the molecule that stores genetic information. It is composed of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates. The four bases in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. DNA exists as two strands coiled around each other in the shape of a double helix. Each strand acts as a template for the other. DNA is replicated through a semi-conservative process where each original strand acts as a template for a new partner strand. This ensures each new cell contains an exact copy of the original DNA.
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA. There are three main models of replication: semi-conservative, conservative, and dispersive. Semi-conservative replication results in two identical DNA molecules each with one old and one new strand. DNA polymerases are involved in replicating DNA. The replication process involves initiation, elongation, and termination phases. Initiation begins at origins of replication and results in unwinding of the DNA helix. Elongation involves continuous synthesis of the leading strand and discontinuous synthesis of the lagging strand in short sections called Okazaki fragments. Termination occurs at specific sequences and ensures replication is complete.
DNA replication occurs through a semiconservative process where each parental DNA strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand. This results in two daughter molecules each composed of one original parental strand and one newly synthesized strand. In eukaryotes, replication occurs during S phase of the cell cycle. The major enzymes involved are DNA polymerases, helicases, and ligases which unwind, copy, and join the strands respectively. Errors are corrected by proofreading and repair mechanisms to maintain genomic integrity.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
2. Lecture 1
• Objective of the Course
• Genetics
• Gene
• Branches of Genetics
• Three great milestones
of genetics
• Scope and significance
of genetics
Lecture 1
• Objective of the Course
• Genetics
• Gene
• Branches of Genetics
• Three great milestones
of genetics
• Scope and significance
of genetics
3. Objective
• To know the importance of studying genetics
• To know background of genetics
• To understand basic principles of genetics
• Applications of genetics
• To know gene expression
• Mutation and so on
4. Genetics
The word genetics derived from the Greek root gen means to
become or to grow into.
it was first coined by William Bateson in 1906 for the study
of physiology of heredity and variations.
The biological science which deals with the phenomena of
heredity, (i.e. transmission of traits from one generation to
another) and variation (the study of the laws governing
similarities and differences between individuals related by
descents) is called genetics.
5. Gene
A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity
Genes are made up of DNA
Some genes act as instructions to make molecules called
proteins
However, many genes do not code for proteins
6.
7. Microbial Genetics
Mycogenetics
Plant Genetics
Animal Genetics
Human Genetics
Population Genetics
Cytogenetics
Biochemical Genetics
Molecular Genetics
Clinical Genetics
Developmental Genetics
Radiation Genetics
Quantitative or
biometric Genetics
Ecological Genetics
8. Three great milestones of genetics
Mendel: Genes and the rules of inheritance (1866)
Watson and Crick: The structure of DNA (1953)
The Human Genome Project: Sequencing DNA and
Cataloguing Genes (1990)
19. The important features of Watson –
Crick Model or double helix model
of DNA are as follows-
1. The DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide
chains or strands that spirally twisted around each other
and coiled around a common axis to form a right-handed
double-helix.
2. The two strands are antiparallel i.e. they ran in
opposite directions so that the 3′ end of one chain facing
the 5′ end of the other.
3. The sugar-phosphate backbones remain on the
outside, while the core of the helix contains the purine
and pyrimidine bases.
20. 4. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds
between the purine and pyrimidine bases of the opposite
strands.
5. Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) by two
hydrogen bonds and guanine (G) always pairs with
cytosine (C) by three hydrogen bonds. This
complimentarily is known as the base pairing rule. Thus,
the two stands are complementary to one another.
6. The base sequence along a polynucleotide chain is
variable and a specific sequence of bases carries the
genetic information.
Continued
21. Continued
7. The base compositions of DNA obey Chargaff s rules
(E.E. Chargaff, 1950) according to which A=T and G=C;
as a corollary ∑ purines (A+G) = 2 pyrimidines (C+T);
also (A+C) = (G+T). It also states that ratio of (A+T)
and (G+C) is constant for a species (range 0.4 to 1.9)
22. 8. The diameter of DNA
is 2.0 nm or 20 A.
Adjacent bases are
separated 0.34 nm or by
3.4 A along the axis. The
length of a complete turn
of helix is 3.4 nm or 34 A
i.e. there are 10bp per
turn. (B- DNA-Watson
rick DNA)
9. The DNA helix has a
shallow groove called
minor groove (1.2nm)
and a deep groove called
major groove (2.2nm)
across.
Continued
23. DNA replication
Molecular mechanism of DNA
replication
(Roles of DNA polymerases and other
replication enzymes. Leading and lagging
strands and Okazaki fragments)
24. Key points:
DNA replication is semiconservative. Each strand in the
double helix acts as a template for synthesis of a new,
complementary strand.
New DNA is made by enzymes called DNA polymerases,
which require a template and a primer (starter) and
synthesize DNA in the 5' to 3' direction.
25. Key points (Continued):
During DNA replication, one new strand (the leading
strand) is made as a continuous piece. The other (the
lagging strand) is made in small pieces.
DNA replication requires other enzymes in addition to DNA
polymerase, including DNA primase, DNA helicase,
DNA ligase, and topoisomerase.
28. Key features of DNA polymerases
o They always need a template
o They can only add nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand
o They can't start making a DNA chain from scratch, but
require a pre-existing chain or short stretch of nucleotides
called a primer
o They proofread, or check their work, removing the vast
majority of "wrong" nucleotides that are accidentally added
to the chain
29. *The addition of nucleotides requires energy
In prokaryotes such as E. coli, there are two
main DNA polymerases involved in DNA
replication:
DNA pol III (the major DNA-maker),
and
DNA pol I, which plays a crucial
supporting role
36. o Helicase opens up the DNA at the replication fork.
o Single-strand binding proteins coat the DNA around the
replication fork to prevent rewinding of the DNA.
o Topoisomerase works at the region ahead of the replication fork to
prevent supercoiling.
o Primase synthesizes RNA primers complementary to the DNA
strand.
o DNA polymerase III extends the primers, adding on to the 3' end,
to make the bulk of the new DNA.
o RNA primers are removed and replaced with DNA by DNA
polymerase I.
o The gaps between DNA fragments are sealed by DNA ligase.
40. Proofreading
DNA polymerases are the enzymes that build DNA in cells
During DNA replication (copying), most DNA polymerases
can “check their work” with each base that they add.
This process is called proofreading
If the polymerase detects that a wrong (incorrectly paired)
nucleotide has been added, it will remove and replace the
nucleotide right away, before continuing with DNA synthesis
41.
42. Direct reversal
Single-strand damage
Base excision repair (BER)
Nucleotide excision repair (NER)
Mismatch repair
Double-strand breaks
Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)
Microhomology-mediated end joining
(MMEJ)
Homologous recombination (HR)
43. Direct reversal
The formation of pyrimidine dimers upon irradiation with
UV light results in an abnormal covalent bond between
adjacent pyrimidine bases.
Such direct reversal mechanisms are specific to the type of
damage incurred and do not involve breakage of the
phosphodiester backbone
44.
45. Photolyase, an old enzyme present in bacteria, fungi,
and most animals no longer functions in humans, who
instead use nucleotide excision repair to repair damage
from UV irradiation.
The photoreactivation process directly reverses this
damage by the action of the enzyme photolyase, whose
activation is obligately dependent on energy absorbed
from blue/UV light (300–500 nm wavelength) to promote
catalysis.
Direct reversal
46. o Another type of damage, methylation of guanine bases, is
directly reversed by the protein methyl guanine methyl
transferase (MGMT), the bacterial equivalent of which is
called ogt.
o This is an expensive process because each MGMT molecule
can be used only once; that is, the reaction is stoichiometric
rather than catalytic.
Direct reversal
47.
48.
49. Single-strand damage
When only one of the two strands of a double helix has a
defect, the other strand can be used as a template to guide
the correction of the damaged strand.
excision repair mechanisms
50. Base excision repair (BER)
Base excision repair (BER) repairs damage to a single
nitrogenous base by deploying enzymes called glycosylases.
These enzymes remove a single nitrogenous base to create an
apurinic or apyrimidinic site (AP site).
Enzymes called AP endonucleases nick the damaged DNA
backbone at the AP site.
DNA polymerase then removes the damaged region using its
5’ to 3’ exonuclease activity and correctly synthesizes the new
strand using the complementary strand as a template.
51.
52. Nucleotide excision repair (NER)
Nucleotide excision repair (NER) repairs damaged DNA which
commonly consists of bulky, helix-distorting damage, such as
pyrimidine dimerization caused by UV light.
Damaged regions are removed in 12–24 nucleotide-long strands
in a three-step process which consists of recognition of damage,
excision of damaged DNA both upstream and downstream of
damage by endonucleases, and resynthesis of removed DNA
region.
53.
54. o NER is a highly evolutionarily conserved repair
mechanism and is used in nearly all eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells.
o In prokaryotes, NER is mediated by Uvr proteins.
o In eukaryotes, many more proteins are involved,
although the general strategy is the same.
Nucleotide excision repair (NER) (continued)
55. Mismatch repair
These systems consist of at least two proteins.
One detects the mismatch, and the other recruits an
endonuclease that cleaves the newly synthesized DNA
strand close to the region of damage.
In E. coli, the proteins involved are the MUT class
proteins. This is followed by removal of damaged region
by an exonuclease, resynthesis by DNA polymerase,
and nick sealing by DNA ligase.
56.
57. Double-strand breaks
Three mechanisms exist to repair double-
strand breaks (DSBs):
Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ),
Microhomology-mediated end joining
(MMEJ), and
Homologous recombination (HR)
58. Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)
In NHEJ, DNA Ligase IV, a specialized DNA
ligase that forms a complex with the cofactor
XRCC4, directly joins the two ends.
To guide accurate repair, NHEJ relies on short
homologous sequences called microhomologies
present on the single-stranded tails of the DNA
ends to be joined.
59. Homologous recombination (HR)
Homologous recombination requires the presence of an
identical or nearly identical sequence to be used as a template
for repair of the break.
The enzymatic machinery responsible for this repair process is
nearly identical to the machinery responsible for chromosomal
crossover during meiosis.
This pathway allows a damaged chromosome to be repaired
using a sister chromatid (available in G2 after DNA
replication) or a homologous chromosome as a template.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64. • Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is a single-stranded molecule
in many of its biological roles and consists of much shorter chains
of nucleotides. However, a single RNA molecule can, by
complementary base pairing, form intrastrand double helixes, as
in tRNA.
• While the sugar-phosphate "backbone" of DNA contains
deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose instead. Ribose has a hydroxyl
group attached to the pentose ring in the 2' position, whereas
deoxyribose does not. The hydroxyl groups in the ribose
backbone make RNA more chemically labile than DNA by
lowering the activation energy of hydrolysis.
• The complementary base to adenine in DNA is thymine, whereas
in RNA, it is uracil, which is an unmethylated form of thymine.
RNA