The document provides an overview of memory in psychology, discussing its importance for learning and various types including sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. It outlines the processes involved in memory, such as encoding, storage, and retrieval, as well as factors influencing memory performance. Additionally, it covers forgetting, its types, and theories, along with practical implications for memory improvement.

1. MEMORY

2. INTRODUCTION

3. Memory plays a very important role in our learning
and psychological growth. Through memory of our
past experiences, we handle new situations, it helps us
in our relearning, problem solving and thinking.

4. DEFINITION

5. In the world of psychology “ it is the ability or power of our
mind to store the past experiences of learning and utilizing
them at a later stage is known as “Memory”.
Memory consists of remembering what has previously
been learned. (Woodworth & Marquis 1948)

6. TYPES OF MEMORY

8. 1. Sensory Memory or immediate Memory :
Affiliated with the transduction of energy. holds sensory
information for less than one second after an item is perceived.
The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like
with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is an
example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is
an automatic response.
E.g. when you make a call over a phone you will remember the
number only as long as you dial it and soon after you forget it.

9. 2.Short-term memory-
After entering into sensory memory, a limited amount of
information is transferred into short-term memory. It is a
temporary memory and lasts only for about 20-30 seconds.
Miller’s magic number: George Miller in 1956, capacity of up
to 7 items.
E.g.-
Learning a spelling
Learning a number.

10. Within STM,there are three basic operations
A) Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual (through eyes)
information; a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an
image which has been perceived for a small duration.
B) Acoustic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory
information( through ears), another type of sensory memory that
briefly stores sounds that have been perceived for short durations.
C) Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a
database for touch stimuli.

11. 3.Long-term memory
Long-term memory is relatively permanent storage. Long term
memory codes information according to meaning, pattern, and
importance.
For example, given a random seven-digit number we may
remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting,
suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory.
On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for
many years through repetition; this information is said to be
stored in long-term memory.

12. Types of long term memory
Long term memory can be categorized into declarative and
procedural Memory.
Declarative memory/ Explicit memory:
Memories for specific information
e.g., what you ate for breakfast, material presented in class
Procedural memory/ Implicit memory:
Memories of how to perform tasks
e.g., reading, riding a bicycle, dialing a friend's phone
number
Declarative memory further divided into semantic memory
and episodic memory

13. Subcategory of declarative/explicit memory
Episodic Memory: memory related to our personal affairs
like name, our father’s name, date of birth and other
personal data of birth etc.
Semantic memory: it comprises of our knowledge and
information related to the world.
-For example 2x2=4 or earth is round.

15. THANKYOU

16. Nature of memory
The fundamental characteristics of memory:
•Memory involves input: Retention of the memory
traces of the original experience.
•Storage : It is either temporary or permanent.
•Output: The revival (bringing back) of stored
memory traces

17. Process of memory
•Memory is a complex process which involves learning,
retention, recall and recognition.
• The process of memorization can be organized as
follows;
1. Encoding/ Registration: It refers to a process to
translate the sensory information into a coded form
that can be easily stored and reproduced when the
need arises. Every bit of information is transformed to
engrams and codes for the storage. One can
memorize anything using any methods.
2. Storage/ retention: It is the power of retention.
These are the encoded message.

18. 3. Retrieval/ recall: It is the reproduction of the
encoded message as and when required using the
process of remembering.
4. Recognition: Refers to the recalled experience at
the conscious level is the same from which the
individual wanted to recall and had experience earlier.
Recall provides the material in memory while
recognition is the process of accepting or rejecting it.
E.g: Remembering a person’s name

19. Factorsinfluencingmemory
The factors influencing memory are divided into extrinsic factors and intrinsic factors.
Intrinsic factors-
•Age of the individual: Memory span increases between
•16 – 26 years of age. Youngsters can remember better than the
aged.
•Maturity:
•Will to learn:
•Interest and attention:
•Intelligence:
•Rest and sleep:
•Medical conditions:
 Hypertension, Hypothyroidism
 Brain tumors, Alzheimer’s disease
 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Emotional factor- anxiety, fear, stress etc.

20. External factors-
Meaningfulness of material
Amount of material
Time required to vocalize response
Distraction
Effective teaching
Liking for teachers
Challenges from some significant person.
Monotonous nature of the material learnt etc.
Attitudes of parents, facilities available for learning
etc.

21. Theories of Memory
Memory Trace Theory- According to this theory everything
which we encounter or experience is recorded in the form of
memory traces.
Theory of general Memory functions-
This theory is a simple theory agreed on by most
psychologists. Three distinct processes of memory have been
identified. These are an Encoding process, a storage process
and a retrieval process.

22. Information Processing Theory-
This theory was developed by Richard Athinson and Richard
Shiffrin according to this theory memory starts with sensory
input from environment ( vision, hearing, taste, touch and smell)
This input is held for a very brief time- for few
seconds.
This information recognized in the sensory register may be
passed to short term memory. ( 20-30sec )
Some of the information reaching short term memory is
processed by being rehearsed.
Rehearsed information passed along to long term memory.
Information not rehearsed is lost.
The information in long term memory will be organized into
categories where they may reside for days, months, years or for
life time. When the information is needed it is retrieved from
LTM.

23. Information processing theory

24. This theory was criticized for being too simplistic.
LTM is believed to be actually made up of multiple
sub components, such as episodic and procedural
memory.
This theory proposes that rehearsal is the only
mechanism by which information reaches long
term storage. But evidence shows that
remembering happens even without rehearsal.

25. Levels of processing theory
The levels of processing model (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and
predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a
memory trace will last.
Craik defined depth as:
"the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than
in terms of the number of analyses performed upon it.”
It is a non-structured approach. The basic idea of this theory
is that memory is really just happens as a result of processing
information.
Memory is just a by-product of the depth of processing of
information, and there is no clear distinction between short
term and long term memory.

26. We can process information in 3 ways:
1.Shallow Processing
- This takes two forms of verbal processing
1. Structural processing (appearance) which is when
we encode only the physical qualities of something.
E.g. the typeface of a word or how the letters look.
2. Phonemic processing – processing the sounds of
words.
Shallow processing only involves maintenance
rehearsal and leads to fairly short-term retention of
information.

27. Deep Processing
- This involves
3. Semantic processing, which happens when we process the
meaning of a word and relate it to similar words with similar
meaning.
Deep processing involves elaboration rehearsal which involves
a more meaningful analysis (e.g. images, thinking, associations
etc.) of information and leads to better recall.
For example, giving words a meaning or linking them with
previous knowledge.
The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well
it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the
easier the information is to recall.

28. MethodsofMemorizing
1.Recitation Method: The learner reads a content once or
twice , then tries to recites and recall. It helps in self appraisal
and self evaluation and the learner can write down the points
that he is unable to recall.
2. Whole and Part Method: memorizing from beginning to
end at stretch or part by part. Like memorizing a Poem. It has
merits and demerits. The learner can use a combined method
by starting the poem with whole and difficult areas can be
learned as part.
3. Spaced and Unspaced method: It follows the principle of
work and rest. After memorizing something for a period of
time, some rest is provided, and continues the memorization
again.

29. Development/Improvementofmemory.
Learning and recall can be improved by training.
Follow the techniques;
1. Recitation and Practice- this practice will help to store the
information in brain for a longer time.
2. Grouping and rhythm – any thing learned through grouping and
in rhythmical pattern will be remember better. e.g. phone no.
564582 can be easily remembered when grouped as 56, 45, 82.
3.When recalling free the mind from fear and anxiety.
4.Have confidence in self and maintain positive attitude.
5.Don’t fight with memory in recalling. Give time.

30. 6.Interests and attention influence memorization.
7.Adopt proper methods of memorization.
8.Follow the principle of association.
Eg. VIBGYOR=color
9.Utilize many senses to learn.
10.Maintain external (envt.) and internal factors (health).
11.Proper Rest, Practice and Repetition.
12. Learning situation- Material learned under situation of peace
and comfort will be retained more effectively. E.g.- comfortable
sitting arrangements, adequate ventilation.

31. Forgetting
Definition:
•Forgetting is the loss( permanent or
temporary) of the ability to recall or
recognize something learnt earlier.
- Munn
•Forgetting is the failure of the individual to
revive in consciousness an idea or group of
ideas without the help of the original
stimulus.
- Bhatia

32. Types of Forgetting
Natural Forgetting: Forgetting occurs with lapse of time in
quite normal way without any intention.
Morbid Forgetting: Deliberate try to forget something. This
may be the result of repression.
General Forgetting: Total loss of recalling some previous
learning.
Specific Forgetting: forgets only one or the other specific part
of his earlier learning.
Amnesia: This type of forgetfulness may be either Physical
(age, diseases, accidents, intoxication etc.) or
Psychological(stress, anxiety, apathy, conflicts etc.).

33. Theories of Forgetting
The memory Traces Decay Theory:
The interference Theory.
The repression or motivated forgetting theory.

34. The memory Traces Decay Theory
Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result
of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace.
Trace decay theory focuses on time and the limited
duration of short term memory.
This theory suggests short term memory can only hold
information for between 15 and 30 seconds unless it is
rehearsed. After this time the information / trace decays
and fades away.
It is widely believed that neurons die off gradually as we
age, yet some older memories can be stronger than most
recent memories. Thus, decay theory mostly affects the
short-term memory system.
Long-term memory is often more resistant to shocks or
physical attacks on the brain.

35. The interference Theory.
We forget something because what we have learnt previously
interferes with the remembering of what we learn
afterwards.
Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when a person
cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been
learnt. What we already know interferes with what we are
currently learning – where old memories disrupt new
memories.
Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when a
person forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a
new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier
learning- where new memories disrupt old memories.

36. The repression or motivated forgetting
theory
It is suggested by Sigmund Freud.
Repression is a mental function that safeguards the mind
from the impact of painful experiences.
By result we push the unpleasant and painful memories
into the unconscious and thus try to avoid consciously the
conflicts that bother us.
This is well motivated and intentional.
This is because we like to see the world around us as quite
pleasant and reasonable.
Eg. We forget the death of dearest ones/relatives and
friends.
We consciously forget marriage party which we don’t
attend.

37. Implications for Nurses
•A nurse should always remember that a thing well
learnt are remembered well.
•Forgetfulness is not bad all times.
•Should understand there is no magic cure, pills or
any other medications to improve the memory as
some advertisements claim.
•Memory can be improved only by hard work and
attempts.
•Understand that forgetfulness is natural
phenomena and treat the patients accordingly,
especially old age.