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1. CHAPTER FOUR
MMORY AND FORGETTING
By: Zelalem Wondimu
School of Psychology
Addis Ababa University

2. Introduction
Learning and memory
 Often describe roughly the same processes
 The former is initial acquisition or encoding of
information,
 The latter more often refers to later storage and
retrieval of information

3.  4.1. Memory
 4.1.1 Meaning and Processes of Memory
 Retention of information/what is learned earlier
over time.


4. Processes of Memory
a) Encoding
 Refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item
of information is to be placed in memory.
b) Storage:
 It is the location in memory system in which
material is saved.
c) Retrieval
 Material in memory storage is located, brought
into awareness and used.
 Memory is the process by which information is
encoded (phase1), stored (phase 2) and later
retrieved (phase 3).

5. 4.1.2 Stages/Structure of Memory
 How information is represented in memory
and how long it lasts and how it is
organized.
 Models of memory is based on how the
computer works (takes in information,
transforming the information into an electronic
language, and storing information on disk),
 Models of memory based on this idea are
Information processing theories.
 Like computer, we also store vast amounts of
information in our memory storehouse.

6.  Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), developed
memory three structures of memory
1. Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
 It is the entry way to memory.
 visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the
visual system for a maximum of one second.
 Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in
the auditory system up to two second.
 Information briefly held in the sensory memory
simply decays from the register.
 Information that has got attention and
recognition pass on short-term memory for
further processing.

7. 2) Short-term Memory (working memory, immediate
memory, active memory, and primary memory)
 Consists of the by-products or end results of
perceptual analysis.
Characteristics of Short-term Memory
It is active
 workspace to process new information and to call up
relevant information from LTM.
Rapid accessibility
 Information in STM is readily available for use.
Preserves the temporal sequence of information
 Maintain the information in sequential manner for a
temporary period of time until it goes to further analysis
and stored in LTM in meaningful way.
Limited capacity
 George Miller (1956) estimated the capacity of STM to
be seven plus or minus 2.

8.  Strategies to hold information in short-term
memory
a. Rehearsal: maintenance and elaborative
b. Chunking: the grouping or packing of
information into higher order units that can be
remembered as single units.

9. 3. Long Term Memory
 Used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful
information for longer period.
Subsystems
a. Declarative/ explicit memory
 The conscious recollection of specific facts or events
that can be verbally communicated.
i. Semantic memory: internal representations of the world,
independent of any particular context.
ii. Episodic memories: memories for events and
situations from personal experience.
b. Non-declarative/ implicit memory
 Behavior is affected by prior experience.
 One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is
procedural memory.
 It’s knowledge of procedures or skills.
 How to comb your hair, use a pencil, drive or swim

10. Serial Position Effect
 The three structures of memory requires to
explain the serial position effect.
 Retention of any particular item will depend on
its position in the list.
 Recall will be best for items at the beginning of
the list (the primacy effect) and at the end of the
list (the recency effect).
 The result will be a U-shaped curve.
 Primacy effect: short-term memory is relatively
empty when the information is entered and
processed to make into long-term memory.
 Recency effect: At the time of recall, they are
still sitting in STM.

11. 4.1.3 Factors Affecting Memory
a. Ability to retain
b. Good health
c. Age of the learner
d. Maturity
e. Will to remember
f. Intelligence
g. Interest
h. Over learning
i. Speed of learning
j. Meaningfulness of the material
k. Sleep or rest

12. 4.2 Forgetting
4.2.1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting
 The apparent loss of information already encoded
and stored in the long-term memory.
 German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus.
 He memorized lists meaningless (nonsense) sets
of two consonants with a vowel in between (FIW,
BOZ).
 The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours,
and particularly in the first hour.
 After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and
declines little, even after the passage of many
days.

13. 4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting
4.2.2.1.The Decay Theory
 Memory traces or engram fade with time if they
are not accessed now and then.
 The trace simply fades away because of the
passage of time.
4.2.2.2. Interference
 Proactive Interference: information learned
earlier interferes with recall of newer material.
 Retroactive Interference: new information
interferes with the ability to remember old
information
4.2.2.3. New Memory for Old/ Displacement
Theory
 New information entering memory can wipe out
old information

14. 5.2.2.4. Motivated Forgetting
 Blocking from consciousness those memories
that are too threatening or painful through
self-protective process repression.
4.2.2.5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
 Lack of retrieval aids from long-term memory.
 Mental or physical state may also act as a
retrieval cue.

15. 4.3. Improving Memory
 Pay Attention: encode the information
 Encode information in more than one way:
elaborate the encoding
 Add meaning: linking new information with the
old
 Take your time: minimize interference by using
study breaks for rest or recreation
 Over learn: Studying information even after
you think you already know it.
 Monitor your learning: rehearsing and testing.