This document discusses ports and their components. It defines a port as a maritime facility where ships can dock to load and discharge cargo and passengers. The key requirements for an ideal port are sufficient water depth, secure anchorage, protection from waves, and entrance width. Ports have departments that handle safety, mooring, cargo handling, storage, and information flow. The major types of ports are inland ports, fishing ports, dry ports, warm water ports, and seaports. Ports consist of major structural components like docks, loading/unloading equipment, and connections to land transportation.

1. HafezAhmad
1FGCU
Port management and maritime logistics [409]
Define port, basic requirement of an ideal port?
A port is a maritime facility which may comprise one or more wharves where ships may dock to load and
discharge passengers and cargo.
1. The ship channels whether natural or artificial should have sufficient depth for the draft of the
visiting vessels to the harbor.
2. The bottom of the harbor should provide secured anchorage to hold the ships against the force
of high winds.
3. To protect against the destructive wave action, the land massesorbreak watermustbe provided.
4. The entrance of the harbor should be wide enough to provide the ready passage for shipping and
at the same time it should be narrowenough to restrict the transmission ofexcessive amounts
of wave energy in time of storms. Due to the drastic changes in the size of ships the emphasis has
been laid on the deepening of channels.
Elements of safety of sea port?
1. Safety approach and departure
2. Safe mooring of vessels
3. Safe cargo handling
4. Safe storage
5. Accurate flow of important information
Major types of seaport with their functions
There are five major types of natural or man-made ports which are Inland port, fishing port, dry port, warm
water port and seaport.
1: inland port: Inland ports are ports built on comparatively smaller water bodies such as rivers or lakes.
They can either be for cargo purpose or for passengers or for both.
I. There should be well-established distribution centers for freight distribution
II. Inland port Depots should be made available for ensuring proper storage of hulks and containers
which can be later used in different voyages
III. There should be well established logistic department to handle all logistics activities as well as to
maintain inventory records
IV. There should be a proper warehouse to house spare parts of cargo and other machinery involved in
the loading of cargo.
2: fishing port: fishing ports are the ports which allow controlled and disciplined fishing to their customers.
These are the highest revenue-generating ports when properly operational.
1.
3: dry port: Dry ports are defined as inland terminals that can be interconnected with a seaport via road or
rail transportation facilities, and they usually act as centers of multimodal logistics.
I. Useful in the trade of importing and exporting
1.

2. HafezAhmad
2FGCU
4: water port: is one where the water doesn’t freeze in wintertime as they are available year round. Warm
water port can be of great geopolitical economic interest.
For example: Dalian in china
5: seaport: Seaports are the most common types of ports around the world which are used for commercial
shipping activities. these ports are built on a sea location and enable the accommodation of both small and
large vessels.
a. Cargo loading and discharging
b. Industrial services in ports
c. Combining and separating cargoes
d. Stuffing or destuffing containers
e. Loading cargo in crates and crates on pallets
f. Shrink –wrapping, labelling, weighing and repackaging
Ports are classified according to their ownership or administration
a. State owned ports
b. Autonomous port
c. Municipal owned port
d. Private owned port
Major stakeholder of Chittagong port
Importer and exporter:
Exporters are highly dependent on the efficiency of the port for the business. This is particularly true for
those that rely on imported goods to produce their product. They are then at the mercy of the both importing
and exporting processes. Chief amongst this group is garment exporters. The national production of textiles
and accessories is nowhere near sufficient to meet their needs. This means that all garment exporters are
dependent on imports and therefore on the speed of import as well as export processes.
Customers:
Customers are an entirely independent authority in the port answering to the national bora of revenue and
having no institutional links with CPA. Their primary responsibility is to assess and collect import duty
thereby meeting NBR revenue targets. They also provide the necessary clearance for exports . the customs
operation in the Chittagong is by far the largest and busiest in the country an estimated 1100-1300
consignment are entered for clearance each day .
Private container depots
Permission to store containers outside the port was granted for the first time a decision that according to
private depot manger took 18 years.There wasnow 7-8 private container depots outside the port that handle
a growing percentage of containers for export. Storage and stuffing take place in these yards and customs
official are paid to visit in order to carry out the necessary checking and clearance procedures.
Shipping agents
Shipping agents act as representative of shipping lines in the ships port of call and are also licensed by the
CPA. They arrange for the stay of ships in port, settle customs tariffs and organize the uploading and

3. HafezAhmad
3FGCU
loading of vessels. One of the main function of the shipping agents is to submit the manifest (a list of all
the goods on board.
Trade union
The number of the trade union in the port is a matter of debate figures range from 22 to 25 although the
official give 33. Some workers are cover by one trade union for example the truck drivers and others by
several CPA workers have five union.
Inland container depot are dry ports equipped for handling and temporary storage of containerized cargo
aswell asempties. This means that hinterland customerscan receive port servicesmore conveniently closer
to their premises. A common user facility with public authority status equipped with fixed installations and
offering services for handling and temporary storage of import/export laden and empty containers carried
under customs control and with Customs and other agencies competent to clear goods for home use,
warehousing, temporary admissions, re-export, temporary storage for onward transit and outright export.
Their primary purpose is to allow the benefits of containerization to be realized on the inland transport leg
of international cargo movements.
 Custom Clearance
 Warehouse facilities
 Container and cargo Handling
 Office of an Operator
 Office of Cargo Handling Agent
 Efficient Communication facilities
 Cargo Stuffing and De-stuffing
 Shipping line office
 Complete Security
 Custom Clearance
Freight forwarded:A freight forwarder acts as an agent when he performs functions on behalf of, and under
the instructions of, the principal (the exporter or importer). As an agent, the forwarder will procure the
services of third parties who will perform the packing, storage, transport, handling and customs clearance
of the goods.
Role / importance of seaport in the international shipping and trade
Ports serve as important transportation hubs that facilitate goods movement to businesses in local
communities and worldwide markets. Seaports are a haven with facilities for berthing and anchoring ships
and providing equipment for transfer of goods from ship-shore, shore-ship & ship-ship. Chittagong Port
plays a pivotal role in revitalizing the economy and sustaining economic growth in Bangladesh by
facilitating international trade. According to sources,the seaports handle 87% of Bangladesh's trade, while
land ports handle 13%. In 2016, Chittagong Port handled 2.346 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs)
of containers having 51.38 million tons (MT) of cargo, and in 2015, 2.024 million TEUs of containers
having more than 50 MT of cargo. It is anticipated that there will be a threefold rise in container traffic in
the next 15 years.
Ports function as

4. HafezAhmad
4FGCU
1. distribution center
2. industrial zones;
3. energy supply bases;
4. mercantile trading centers with banks, brokers, and traders;
5. urbanization and city redevelopment centers;
6. life activity bases in rural ports;
7. maritime leisure bases in cruise passenger ship terminals;
8. private yacht marinas;
Explain department wise services of ctg port ?
Difference between terminal and port
Department wise service of CPA

5. HafezAhmad
5FGCU
Crucial factors encouraging sea port development ?
Why does it is essential to maintain port structure
What are the key principles and types of maintenance of port structures
Mitigation and preventive measures to control the adverse effects on the environment
Asset management system that commonly practice in the port
Key functions of marine logistics and flow chart
How seaport degrade water quality
Port selection criteria by ship owner
Critical issues for the seaport development
Enlist and show the relationship of different stakeholder s involved in the port operation and management
using linkage map
Port Functions
Within the port system, one or more organizations fill the following roles:
 Landlord for private entities offering a variety of services.
 Regulator of economic activity and operations.
 Regulator of marine safety,security, and environmental control.
 Planning for future operations and capital investments.
 Operator of nautical services and facilities.
 Marketer and promoter of port services and economic development.
 Cargo handler and storer.
 Provider of ancillary activities.
Major structural components of a port?
‘Port infrastructure’ means infrastructure and facilities for the provision of transport related port services,
for example berths used for the mooring of ships, quay walls, jetties and floating pontoon ramps in tidal
areas,internal basins, backfills and land reclamation, alternative fuel infrastructure and infrastructure for
the collection of ship-generated waste and cargo residues.
Ports are transfer hubs for trade and are usually built near natural harbors, but they can also be located
hundreds of miles up rivers or lakes. Ports are land facilities constructed to transfer goods between water
and land. They consist of major features such as:
1. Docks or berths where vessels moor;
2. Equipment and personnel to load and unload vessels;
3. Connections to land transportation (such as highways, railways, and pipelines); and

6. HafezAhmad
6FGCU
4. Cargo storage areas.
Basic and common structural elements for port
1: Building in port
Buildings in port are mainly two types –office buildings and storage and reloading buildings. These
buildings are standard buildings and don’t differ significantly from other similar buildings in the
community.
2: Dredging of harbors and fairways
3: Port for crude oil and oil products
4: Port for containers (container terminal) , world container terminals are classified into five major
categories by their ownerships
I. Public terminals
II. Carrier based dedicated terminals
III. Terminal operator and Operation terminals
IV. Carrier built and operation terminals
V. Joint venture of carrier and terminal operators
5: Customhouse: building where customs and duties are paid or collected and where vessels are enteredand
cleared.Bonded warehouse is a building or other securedarea in which imported dutiable merchandise may
be stored, manipulated, or undergo manufacturing operations without payment of duty for up to 5 years
from the date of importation
6: others
Chassis: A piece of equipment specifically designed for the movement of containers by highway to and
from container terminals.
Pallet: A short wooden, metal or plastic platform on which package cargo is placed, then handled by a
forklift truck.
Container terminal: A specialized facility where ocean container vessels dock to discharge and load
containers, equipped with cranes with a safe lifting capacity. Most terminals have direct rail access and
container storage areas, and are served by highway carriers.
Berth: A berth is a designated location in a port or harbor used for mooring vessels when they are not at
sea. Berths provide a vertical front which allows safe and secure mooring that can then facilitate the
unloading or loading of cargo or people from vessels.
Port and regional development
What is port economics?
Port economics is concerned with the study of the economics of port services.
Economic importance of port

7. HafezAhmad
7FGCU
Seaports have been centers of commerce for centuries, and they remain crucial to the economy today. Ports
generate substantial business activity through their operations, but those benefits are dwarfed by the huge
importance of water transportation to other industries.
Ports can be considered as “funnels” to economic development since they act as
a catalyst enabling three major types of effects:
 Direct benefits to port. They involve the revenues that accrue from the port activity and arise from the
various charges levied on ships and cargo for the use of the port. The volume of the port is thus directly
proportional to revenue. They mainly include fees charged for pilotage, berthing and towing, charges for
cargo handling and demurrage charges. With the emergence of the landlord port model, port authorities are
getting additional revenue from terminal concessions. Further, there may be additional rental revenue from
development of port land, such as logistics zones or more general real estate projects. However, direct
economic benefits tend to be less important than they were in the past, particularly because of
mechanization and terminal concessions. Another categoryon direct benefits concernthe revenue generated
by national transport firms servicing the port, such as trucking companies and railways (if present). The
direct benefits to port users are generally referred to as “economic benefits”. These are also generally
included in economic appraisals, although which particular benefits are to be included will depend on the
given situation.
 Indirect benefits to port users. They involve firms that import or export goods from the port. Indirect
benefits to port users include cost savings that arise from reduced operating costs, some of which may be
realized outside the immediate port area.Theyinvolve lower shipping costsdue to reduced turnaround time
from improvements such as more berth space, better channel access, better terminal productivity, and
reduced processing time for cargo at the port. They may also include savings in ship operating costs due to
economies of scale from the use of larger ships enabled by deeper draft and additional volumes. Enhanced
port facilities and operations may also reduce inland transport costs as a result of less congestion, increased
productivity and better turnaround time. Other benefits to users may include savings in insurance costs due
to port improvements, and savings in interest costs related to inventory, particularly from lower inventory
levels as more efficient port operations enable users to adopt better supply chain management practices.
 Induced benefits to the economy. Include the benefits that filter through to the suppliers of input factors,
such as income to labor directly employed in port-related activities, and income to industries supplying the
port with goods and services and which creates indirect employment. These incomes generate in turn re-
spending which further induces employment and income through the economic multiplier effect. Port
investment may also have the effect of stimulating economic activity in industries that use the port. Such
benefits, however, are not as straightforward as cost saving benefits. The induced benefits are secondary
and not usually taken into account in economic appraisals. This is partly because it is hard to know where
to draw the line in including the successive rounds of induced income and employment. There is thus a risk
for economic benefit analysis to overstate the impacts of port activities by assuming indirect benefits that

8. HafezAhmad
8FGCU
may not materialize. In addition, in developing economies the potential induced benefits are often curtailed
by lack of capital and skilled labor and are lost through import leakage. Induced benefits can also be
assessed from an environmental perspective where less pollution such as noise, particulates and carbon that
accrue as social benefits in terms of quality of life and healthcare costs.
Portactivities have multiplying effectswithin aneconomy, which are much larger than the port itself. While
the economic importance of port grows, particularly for the sectors they are connected to, their relative
importance within the region they are servicing is often declining. There are thus diminishing total
economic benefits for a regional economy as this economy grows and becomes more complex. The
following are the most commonly observed economic benefits of ports on regional employment:
 Port throughput is in general positively related to employment in port regions, implying that the
higher the throughout the more employment. Employment impacts are more substantial in the
industry than in the service sector.
 Employment impacts vary by commodity sectors. Container and break bulk traffic have usually
twice the employment impact than dry and liquid bulk traffic.
 Private ports usually have more regional employment impacts than public ports since they are
usually servicing commercial supply chains.
 Each direct port employment is commonly associated with about 3 to 4 indirect jobs, although such
figures vary widely according to the surveys and the context. There is limited empirical evidence
about job multiplier figures.
Evaluation of port performance and productivity
Container handling of Chittagong port
Year Import (TONS) Export (TONS) Total (TONS)
2016-17 17,084,610 6,395,923 23,480,533
2017-18 19,089,447 6,880,740 25,970,187
Main performance indicators for port systems
Classification Performance indicators
Ships and vessels 1. Ships waiting time
2. Ships capacity utilization
3. Ships cost by unit of cargo carried
4. Ships service time ( loading and unloading )
Resources 1. Berths availability
2. Number of cargo handled per resource
3. Resource utilization
4. Total demurrage cost

9. HafezAhmad
9FGCU
5. Handling rate of discharge operation
Materials 1. Overall time at the port
2. Tons per ship hour in port
3. Expected probability of ship damage while in port
Infrastructure 1. Delayed caused by road works
2. Delayed caused by congestion
3. Annual average time that port open to (navigation, berthing of ships ,
departure of ships..)
Port authorities 1. Degree of process adaptability according to customer requirements
2. Truck queuing time at port gates
3. Facility utilization
Terminal? Difference terminal and port
A terminal is a place where loading and unloading of people or goods takes place like for e.g. a bus
terminal or a train terminal. In simple terms it can be said that marine terminals are stops or stations for
ships and boats.
A terminal is a part of a port. Aport generally describes the location where ships berth and conduct activity.
Within a port there can be multiple terminals through which cargo passes from sea to land. A terminal
instead refersto the specific part of a port dedicated to a certain type of activity, such ascontainers or bulks.
Classify various types of ships and cargo vessels used in the transportation of goods in the national and
international port
1: container vessels
2: bulk vessels: Bulk vessels have a design perfectforcarrying dry cargo.Specifically appropriate for things
like sugar, fertilizer, grains, and power sources like ore and coal. There are specific ports with equipment
necessary to load and unload a bulk vessel’s cargo
3: break bulk vessels:These types of vessels have remained the backbone of all trading fleets,often carrying
dry cargo and even liquid cargo. Break bulk vessels can carry goods like bags of cargo including things
like bags of flour, cement, or sugar. They can also carry palletized cargo like chemicals, paint, and even
timber.
4: reefer vessels: Reefer vessels are specifically designed to carry goods that have to be temperature
controlled or frozen during their shipment. This includes produce, fish, meat, and some alcohol
5: barge vessels: A type of vessel which is primarily used for transporting cargo is termed as a 'Barge'. A
barge is flat-shaped on its bottom, just like a raft.
6: tanker vessels: Tanker vessels are designed specifically to transport liquids.
7: multipurpose vessels: Multi-purpose vessels can transport different types of cargo all-in-one.
8: Ro Ro vessels: Ro-Ro vessels have a design that suits loading and unloading cargo trailers onto a ship
with a ramp. These types of ships come in many forms including cargo vessels specifically for railroad cars
or truck trailers, car carriers, and other vehicle ferries.

10. HafezAhmad
10FGCU
What is port management model? Describe various types of port management model
The model is well-established for the construction of economic infrastructure such as roads, bridges and
public transport systems but it is also used for social infrastructure such as schools, prisons, and hospital
and are now used in more than half of the world’s countries.
A Public-private partnership (PPP) is often defined as a long-term contract between a private party and a
government agency for providing a public asset or service, in which the private party bears significant risk
and management responsibility (World Bank, 2012). It relies on the recognition that public and private
sectors each have certain advantages relative to other in performing specific tasks. The responsibilities of
the private sectorcould entail finance, design, construction, operation, management and maintenance of the
project.
Why public and private partnership important
Public Private Partnerships offer a unique and innovative method of involving the private sector in the
nation building activity and in accelerating the delivery of public goods and services of high quality through
joint enterprises, without spreading the limited available resources too thin.
It is anapproach that public authorities adopt to increase private sectorinvolvement in the delivery of public
services to
1. Increase total investment in public goods and services
2. Reduce costs
3. Access expertise
Traditional procurement
1. Inefficient and lack of domestic experience or skills
2. Unreliable with
3. Poor fiscal management
4. Growing demand on public services
Other factors
1. Short political tenures- government rush
2. Rent seeking behavior –interest groups
3. Putting on a good spin- moral hazards
Elements of PPP
1. Design and build: these are usually integrated with at least one of the other elements.
2. Operation and maintenance: in some projects, these two elements are kept separate from eachother.
For each PPP arrangement, the public sector must decide whether the private sector company
should have responsibility for both operation and maintenance of the asset or service, or whether it
would be preferable for it to be operated by the public sector and maintained by the private.
3. Finance: typically, in pursuit of the optimum means of financing the costs of public infrastructure
projects, PPP make use of a combination of public and private sector funds. The private sector
raises capital funding for a project through equity and debt finance, to be recovered either from
members of the public through user charges,or from the sale of the service to the public sector,or
from a combination of the two where the public sector subsidizes the service to make it affordable
to the end user.

11. HafezAhmad
11FGCU
4. Ownership: when entering into a PPP,the public authority must decide whether the government or
the private company should own the facility that is developed. In some arrangements, the land and
facility will be owned by the private sector, whereas in others the asset will revert to public
ownership after construction.
Importance of stakeholder management for facing global challenges in seaport business
Stakeholder management is important because it is the lifeblood of effective project relationships. This
means not only knowing your stakeholders but also understanding their unique communication needs at
various points in the project. The benefits of stakeholder engagement
a. It offers those who will affect or be affected by the outcomes a chance to voice their opinions
b. It ensures that an organization has greater clarity and a shared vision amongst its key influencers
c. It enables an organization to identify who their key stakeholders are and understand the relationship
they have with the organization
d. It brings people together to pool knowledge, experience, and expertise to co-create solutions
e. It helps build collaborative partnerships and new relationships that generate value
f. It can identify strategies to gain competitive advantage
g. It helps to reduce the level of risk within an organization and improves governance
Common types and characteristics public and private port management model
The PPP models can be classified into five broad categories in order of generally (but not always)
increased involvement and assumption of risks by the private sector. The five broad categorizations are:
1. Supply and management contracts
Management contracts allow private sector skills to be brought into service design and delivery,
operational control, labor management and equipment procurement. However,the public sector retains
the ownership of facility and equipment. The private sector typically assumes specific responsibilities
related to a service, and it is typically not asked to assume commercial risk. The private contractor is
paid a fee to manage and operate services. Normally, payment of such fees is performance-based.
2. Turnkey projects
Turnkey is a traditional public sector procurement model for infrastructure facilities. Generally, a
private contractor is selected through a bidding process. The private contractor designs and builds a

12. HafezAhmad
12FGCU
facility for a fixed fee,rate or total cost, which is one of the key criteria in selecting the winning bid.
The contractor assumes risks involved in the design and construction phases.
3. Affermage /Lease
In the affermage/lease type of arrangement an operator (the leaseholder) is responsible for operating
and maintaining the infrastructure facility (that already exists) and services, but generally the operator
is not required to make any large investment. However,this model is often applied in combination
with other models such as build-rehabilitate-operate-transfer (BROT).
4. Concessions
In this form of PPP,the Government defines and grants specific rights to an entity (usually a private
company) to build and operate a facility for a fixed period of time. The Government may retain the
ultimate ownership of the facility and/or right to supply the services. In concessions, payments can take
place both ways:concessionaire pays to government for the concession rights and the government may
also pay the concessionaire, which it provides under the agreement to meet certain specific condition.

13. HafezAhmad
13FGCU
5. Private ownership of assets.
In this form of participation, the private sector remains responsible for design, construction and
operation of an infrastructure facility and in some cases the public sector may relinquish the right of
ownership of assets to the private sector.
Characteristics of PPP
1: participants, 2: long term (10-60 years) contractual relationships – enduring relationships create
opportunities and may create problems.
3: Resourcing; 4: shared responsibilities – relative roles depend on situation
5: continuity 6: a method of procurement- emphasis on the desired outcome and focus on services
7: whole of life cycle costing; 8: innovation
9: risk allocation, 10 : flexible ownership : myriad of options to suit individual situations
Define port planning? Port planning process with component
Port planning is a management tool that assists in the decision-making process and is primarily focused on
guiding port activities by adopting a strategic perspective of the situation. A satisfactory and efficient
management requires making decisions based on a systemic point of view, which includes the sphere of
influence. The development of planning instruments of eachPortAuthority must coincide with the strategic
framework of the Spanish port system (or with the general port sector framework, in the case of regional
Port Authorities.
Port and harbor

14. HafezAhmad
14FGCU
1: Function of Port and Harbor
A port is a commercial venture with all the facilities needed to support trade with cargo, storage and
transport. A harbor is a place of safety for ships and offers moorings on jetties.
The main functions of seaports are:
 To ensure safety for seagoing vessels entering, operation in and leaving the seaport
 To provide facilities and equipment necessary for seagoing vessels to anchor, load and unload cargo,
and embark and disembark passengers
 To provide cargo transportation, loading and unloading, warehousing and preservation service in the
seaport
 To provide shelter, repair, maintenance of necessary services to seagoing vessels and other crafts in
emergency cases
 To provide other services to seagoing vessels, people and cargo
2: Facilities in Port and Harbor
A port has cranes and lifts to move heavy cargo. The port has connections to rail links and road transport.
The commercial side of handling cargo is supported by customs for foreign goods. Special storage facilities
are provided for items like chemicals and fuel. A port can repair ships and support the needs of the staff
with offices, restaurants,and hotels. A harbor has less commercial facilities asit is merely a place of safety.
It offers support for ships moored there but not in the same degree as a port.
3; Accessibility
A port is accessible through the commercial entrance and sea route. It may also be accessible via a canal
or river if it is part of a dry port. There are road and rail links for commercial reasons to a port. A harbor
would be equally accessible but for different reasons.
4: Value of Port and Harbor
A port has its value as a commercial enterprise. It is a valuable asset to any country with a coastline. A
harbor is a valuable place of safety for ships and worldwide there are some amazing natural and manmade
harbors.
5: Significance of Port and Harbor
They have been developed into destination places, tourist attractions. Wadi al-Jarf is one of the oldest
artificial harbors, while DebelAli harbor in Dubai is the largest man-made harbor. Ports all over the world
play their part in encouraging trade and commerce betweendifferent countries. In times of war,battle ships
are housed in ports and prepared for battles at sea.
Why does it is essential to maintain port structure ? what are the key principles and types of maintenance
of port structures ?
Port economics > how port industry boost up the economy of a country ?
Chittagong port

15. HafezAhmad
15FGCU
Chittagong is the principal sea port of Bangladesh, situated in the south of Bangladesh, handling more than
92% of the sea-borntrade. The port is basically a river port situated 16 km upstreamfrom the Bayof Bengal.
Chittagong Port has the following berthing facilities at present
1. General Cargo Berths (GCB): 13 consecutive berths (total length 2,100 m approx.) constructed
during 1954-1979 and used for handling of generaland container cargo. The marine structures are
not in a very good condition.
2. Chittagong Container Terminal (CCT): Dedicated 450 m quay wall for container traffic with STS
gantry cranes. The facilities are in a good condition. •
3. New mooring Container Terminal (NCT): Recently built 1,000 m long quay wall (5 berths á 200
m) for container cargo operations. The structure is in good condition.
Main function of Chittagong port Authority
The functions of the authority shall be :-
1. To manage, maintain, improve and develop the port.
2. To provide and maintain adequate and efficient port services and facilities in the Port or the
approaches to the Port.
3. to regulate and control berthing and movement of vessels and navigation within the Port;
4. To do such acts and things as may be necessary or convenient to be done in connection with, or
incidental or conductive to, the performance of its functions under this Ordinance.
How will you measure the port performance and productivity ?
How seaport can degrade water and air quality ?
Preventive measures by which the port authority can control the adverse effects of port development
activities ?
Marine logistics ? key functions of maritime logistics
Maritime transport (i.e. shipping and ports) is clearly concerned with the transportation of goods and/or
passengers between two or more seaports by sea; on the other hand, logistics is the function responsible for
the flow of materials from suppliers into an organization, through operations within the organization and
then out to customers.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308467624_Maritime_logistics
Process of maritime logistics
Define supply chain management? Compare logistics and supply chain management
A supply chain is the connected network of individuals, organizations, resources, activities, and
technologies involved in the manufacture and sale of a product or service. A supply chain starts with the
delivery of raw materials from a supplier to a manufacturer and ends with the delivery of the finished
product or service to the end consumer.
Supply chain management is the management of the flow of goods and services and includes all processes
that transform raw materials into final products. It involves the active streamlining of a business's supply-
side activities to maximize customer value and gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace.

16. HafezAhmad
16FGCU
In SCM, the supply chain manager coordinates the logistics of all aspects of the supply chain which
consists of five parts:
 The plan or strategy
 The source (of raw materials or services)
 Manufacturing (focused on productivity and efficiency)
 Delivery and logistics
 The return system (for defective or unwanted products)
Logistics focuses on transporting goods while supply chain focuses on finished product and/or customers.
.Logistics has to do with the coordination and movement of goods. Supply chain involves multiple facets
such as operations and procurement that keep a company running smoothly.
Difference between logistics and supply chain management
Supply chain Logistics
1: it is a network of facilities like warehouses,
factories, terminal, ports and store
2: it is a network of vehicles like truck,train ,planes
and ships
3: it is a network of logistics information systems
Connecting suppliers ,supplier with its customers
1: it is what happens in the supply chain
2: it is putting the right material in the right place
at the right time
3: it provides much of the supply chain’s value
added.
Factors affecting logistics strategies and organizational structures
1. Rapid product introduction across numerous region
2. Focused market needs
3. Quick response delivery
4. Expanded ,special services
5. Innovative channels
Long term and short term effect of dredging of the port area
Difference between capital and maintenance dredging
Maintenance: dredging to deepen or maintain navigable waterways or channels which are threatened to
become silted with the passage oftime, due to sedimented sand and mud, possibly making them too shallow
for navigation.
Capital dredging is an infrequent process,and means the removal of large amounts of virgin material from
the sea bed to create, or deepen, a shipping channel in order to serve larger ships.
Which one would you suggest for an estuary port ? why ?
Port management is the process of keeping ports organized, supervised, and functioning properly.
Problems of port management / Checklist of hazardous waste that can be generated from seaport ?
1. Safety issues
2. Storage and utilization of wastes
3. Oil pollution
4. Ballast water problem
5. Dumping and destruction of liquid and solid waste

17. HafezAhmad
17FGCU
6. Air pollution
Functions of container berth
Berths are designated by the management of a facility (e.g., port authority, harbor master). Vessels are
assigned to berths by these authorities.
IMO guide line for the control and management of blast water
Under the Convention, all ships in international traffic are required to manage their ballast water and
sediments to a certain standard, according to a ship-specific ballast water management plan. All ships will
also have to carry a ballast water record book and an international ballast water management certificate.
The ballast water management standards will be phased in over a period of time. As an intermediate
solution, ships should exchange ballast water mid-ocean. However, eventually most ships will need to
install an on-board ballast water treatment system.
Method of forecasting
There are a number of approaches to forecasting, at the macro level of the total market or industry, and at
the micro level of the company down to the individual customers.
Macro forecasting Macro forecasting involves looking at the overall market for a product or category of
products. It is about:
 studying company historical performance in relation to the environment(political, economic, social,
legislative), industry performance, demographic factors related to company or market performance,and
product demand
 Relating industry demand to national levels of production, income levels, interest rates, employment,
imports, and demographic factors.
Micro forecasting the typical approach to market micro forecasting is to:
 study the performance of each existing and potential customer account on a product-by-product basis
over the pastfewyearsor recentsalesperiods and preparing forward salesestimates for the next forecast
period
 Build up to territory, area and national sales forecasts for comparison with the independently prepared
macro forecasts.

18. HafezAhmad
18FGCU
Describe at least two methods of forecasting demand and capacity of a port
1: Time series analysis : Bearing in mind the target readership for this text, practicing sales managers, we
will not attempt lengthy expositions of complex statistical forecasting techniques, most of which are based
on analyzing data over a longer time period (time series analyses) but refer interested readers to more
specialist texts. We will look briefly at some of the main macro forecasting quantitative techniques.
Time series data studies, which would normally make use of computer facilities such as spreadsheets,
include the following main statistical techniques.
a. Trend fitting is a technique where historical actual data is plotted and the trend projected.
b. Moving annual totals or moving annual averages are practicaltechniques that smooth data
in a time series,showing at rend that is not distorted by serious seasonal, cyclical or random
fluctuations.
2: Current demand: The starting point should be to make some estimate of market potential for each market
sector and the overall market for company products, and then see how this is being satisfied, i.e. current
levels of demand, and the company share of the current demand can then be factored in to develop
marketing strategies to develop the company’s sales and market share.
How seaport activities can degrade water and air quality?

19. HafezAhmad
19FGCU
Port operations can lead to environmental impacts on air, water and land. Many communities with
environmental justice concernsalso experience disparities in health outcomes that they attribute to exposure
to emissions from port operations. Ports are required to mitigate port projects and operations. Air pollution
is a significant concern atport facilities. Mobile sourcesat ports release pollutants including (PM),nitrogen
oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and air toxics. Sources of air pollution at ports
can include:
Examples of Sources of Air Pollution at Ports
Transportation Sources Stationary Sources
Trucks Refineries
Marine vessels Oil and gas storage facilities
Trains Power generation
Cargo handling equipment Storage of open piles of coal
Air pollution can affect our health in many ways. Numerous scientific studies have linked air pollution to
a variety of health problems including: (1) aggravation of respiratory and cardiovascular disease; (2)
decreased lung function; (3) increased frequency and severity of respiratory symptoms such as difficulty
breathing and coughing; (4) increased susceptibility to respiratory infections; (5) effects on the nervous
system, including the brain, such as IQ loss and impacts on learning, memory, and behavior; (6) cancer;
and (7) premature death. Some sensitive individuals appear to be at greater risk for air pollution-related
health effects,forexample, those with pre-existing heart and lung diseases(e.g.,heart failure/ischemic heart
disease, asthma, emphysema, and chronic bronchitis), diabetics, older adults, and children.
Air pollution also damages our environment. For example, ozone can damage vegetation, adversely
impacting the growth of plants and trees. These impacts can reduce the ability of plants to uptake carbon
dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and indirectly affect entire ecosystems.
Water pollution: Port operations can have a significant impact on water quality and the health of marine
life. Waste from ships and other port activities can result in loss or degradation of habitat areas and can also
harm marine life. Known impacts of port operations include:
 Wastewater:Ships periodically release sewage, wastewater and bilge water, which is wastewater
that is often contaminated with oil. Discharges are regulated by federalstate and local governments,
including port authorities.
 Ship paint: Leaching of toxic paint additives, meant to prevent barnacles from clinging to ships,
can result in health impacts on marine life.
 Stormwater runoff: Stormwater runoff gathers pollutants from paved surfaces at the port and
deposits them in the water, often bypassing wastewater treatment plants.
 Nitrogen:Nitrogen is the leading cause of eutrophication in marine systems, where algae blooms
use up oxygen in the water and cause fish and shellfish to die.

20. HafezAhmad
20FGCU
 Oil spills:Oil contamination can include chronic pollution from runoff, bilge water,and the loading
and unloading of oil tankers, as well as larger spills resulting from overfilling tanker ships or tears
in a ship’s hull.
 Dredging : Removing sediment to deepen ship channels can increase the cloudiness of water and
disturb contaminated bottom sediment, harm or permanently destroy critical wildlife habitats, and
disturb or kill threatened and endangered species.
 Invasive species:Marine animals can be taken into ships through ballast water that is used to help
maintain ship balance and then transported across the world to new habitats where they may
become invasive species that threaten the balance of natural ecosystems.
Describe preventive measurements by which the port authority can control the adverse effects of port
development activities
Shipping has the potential impacts on the marine environment
1. Discharge of ballast water
2. Use of antifouling paints
3. Disposal of marine debris
4. Disposal of waste materials and sewage
5. Dredging and the disposal or accidental incidents
6. Spills of hazardous materials including chemical and radioactive materials
7. Physical damage to marine habitats by ships
8. Noise emissions
9. Air emissions
10. Bottom contamination
Ballast water
Fresh or salt water, sometimes containing sediments, held in tanks and cargo holds of ships to increase
stability and maneuverability during transit. The major hazard associated with the discharge of
contaminated ballast water is the introduction of exotic marine species to the local marine environment and
translocation of existing marine pests to new locations. Exotic species can cause the alteration of entire
ecosystem and habitat and the extinction of indigenous species.
When ballast water is loaded many microscopic organisms and sediments are introduced into the ships
ballast tanks. Many of these organisms are able to survive in these tanks. Ballast water impacts the
environment when the ballast water is discharged and the organisms are released into new environments.
If suitable conditions exist in this release environment, these specieswill survive and reproduce and become
invasive species.In some casesthere is a high probability thatthe organism will become a dominant species,
potentially resulting in:
 The extinction of native species
 Effects on local and regional biodiversity
 Effects on coastal industries that use water extraction
 Effects on public health
 Impacts on local economies based on fisheries
Ballast water impacts the biodiversity

21. HafezAhmad
21FGCU
The problem of invasive species in ships’ ballast water is largely due to the expanded trade and traffic
volume over the last fewdecadesand, since the volumes of seaborne trade continue to increase,the problem
may not yet have reached its peak yet. The effects in many areas of the world have been devastating.
Actually invasive aquatic species are one of the four greatest threats to the world’s oceans. Quantitative
data show that the rate of bio-invasions is continuing to increase atan alarming rate and newareasare being
invaded all the time.
But how exactly does the ballast water impact the biodiversity? Species from the ballast water are
considered alien if they are not native to a given ecosystem. They are also referred to as non-native species.
Alien species are considered to be invasive when their introduction causes,or is likely to cause,harm to the
environment, the economy, or human health. The introduction and spread of alien invasive species is a
serious global threat to marine and freshwater ecosystems. New species may completely alter the local
communities, drive species to extinction as well as cause economic damage as nuisance species.
Examples of actualand possible effects of non-native aquatic animals which have recently been introduced
to Scandinavia from shipping are shown below:
 Comb Jellyfish. The invasion of the Baltic Sea by a voracious comb jellyfish from North America
is one of the best-documented examples of a marine alien invasive species introduced through
ballast water. It eats both zooplankton, the food of commercially important fish, and the eggs and
larvae of the same fish species.
Green port policy
The Green Port Policy is an aggressive, comprehensive and coordinated approach to reduce the negative
impacts of Port operations. The Green Port Policy, which the Board adopted in January 2005, serves as a
guide for decision making and established a framework for environmentally friendly Port operations. The
policy’s five guiding principles are:
 Protect the community from harmful environmental impacts ofPort operations.
 Distinguish the Port as a leader in environmental stewardship and compliance.
 Promote sustainability.
 Employ best available technology to avoid or reduce environmental impacts.
 Engage and educate the community.
Major components of green port policy
The Green Port Policy includes six basic program elements, each with an overall goal:
 Wildlife – Protect, maintain or restore aquatic ecosystems and marine habitats.
 Air – Reduce harmful air emissions from Port activities.
 Water – Improve the quality of Long Beach Harbor waters.
 Soils/Sediments – Remove, treat, or render suitable for beneficial reuse contaminated
soils and sediments in the Harbor District.
 Community Engagement – Interact with and educate the community regarding Port
operations and environmental programs.

22. HafezAhmad
22FGCU
 Sustainability – Implement sustainable practices in design and construction, operations,
and administrative practices throughout the Port.
Difference between terminal and port
A terminal is referred to as the set of facilities at a port where loading and unloading
of cargo/container take place. Terminals are named on the basis of the type of cargo that can be
handled by them. Some of the most common types of terminals are container terminal,
bulk cargo terminal, LNG terminal etc.
A port can be defined as a harbor or an area that is able to provide shelter to numerous boats and
vessels (transferring people or cargo), and can also allow constant or periodic transaction of
shipment.
Some common port facilities provided by the most common sorts of ports throughout the
world are as follows:
a) Special Warehouse: This is available on all the ports, for storing the shipment and for
maintaining regular stock.
b) Port Reception: Reception has details of all the shipment scheduled and moreover it is a guide
for the port facilities.
c) Other facilities: Some other essential facilities are also available at seaports namely hotels,
restaurants, restrooms and eateries for the port visitors. Some of the ports are provided with
medical facilities to the people present there, if there is no hospital in the vicinity it becomes
obligatory for the port to provide with primary medical services.
d) Fishing facilities: Fishing ports allow its customer with fishing aids and amenities at the port.
e) Warm water facility: A greater revenue-generating warm water port provides warm water even
in frosting winters.
f) Loading and Unloading Facility: It is the mandatory part of every port to allow loading and
unloading of freight as well as people in a ship.
g) Infrastructure and Equipment’s: A port has piers, basins, stacking or storage areas,
warehouses to store various ferry equipment. Each port is equipped with essential equipment for
e.g. hauling equipment’s, draggers, cranes, trucks, loaders, etc.
h) Workshop: All the bigger and significant ports provide the facility of vessel workshop. It is
the place where one can get spare parts and accessories of a vessel. Also, the vessels which have
gone out of order are repaired and catered in the workshop.
Department wise service of CPA/ Explain department wise services of ctg port ?
The Port Authority of any country is a government or semi-government public authority which
builds, maintains and operates critical transportation and trade assets at the seaports. In short, the
seaport authority facilitates the management of millions of people working on the harbor and

23. HafezAhmad
23FGCU
maintains or supervise vessel movement. The London Port Authority was the first port authority.
It came into action in the year 1908.
Port Authority controls, legalizes and manages all the port and marine services, facilities and
activities within the concerned country waters, it also includes management of vessel traffic,
improvisation of navigational safety, and facilitation of security and environmental management
at the port.
Marine department
Pilotage services
Navigational channel conservancy
Berthing /un-berthing including radio control
Freshwater supply to ships in outer anchorage
Providing supports of tug boat, mooring boat, buoy lifting vessel
Traffic department
Storage facilities for break bulk cargo and container
Transshipment /re-shipment services
Stevedoring and shoe handling services through berth operator
Delivery of cargo /container through roads / rail and water ways
Hazardous cargo handling
Settlement of claim and refund of over payment
Security department
Ensure on board security of foreign vessel and crews
Manage and maintain a full-fledged standby fire services unit
Issuance of temporary gate pass/NOCs to all users
Hydrography department
Supply tidal data and water quality data to different organizations /institution for research
Supply river survey chart to different organization as per govt. instruction
Issuance of dredging permission to outside agencies /organization for removing silts or collection
of sands from navigational channel.
Provide dredging and survey assistance to various organization.
Crucial factors encouraging sea port development? Port selection criteria by ship owner/
Critical issues for the seaport development

24. HafezAhmad
24FGCU
Port selection criteria
Number of sailings
Inland freight rates
Proximity of port
Congestion
Intermodal links
Port equipment
Port charges
Customs handling
Port security
Port size
Three major factors which have influenced port development are:
(1) Increase in the supply of ship tonnage;
(2) Specialization in ship types, cargo-handling features;
(3) Increasing ship size.
(1) Physical conditions. It is still the most important factor to affect the port development. Water
depth, wave condition and land space adjacent to the port are some of the key factors to determine
the port development. Along with the process of containerization, the water depth of the navigation
channel will be at least 15 m.
(2) Hinterland. A port should have an extensive hinterland.

25. HafezAhmad
25FGCU
(3) Containerization. Containerization is one of the most remarkable characteristics of the current
ocean transportation;
(4) Fresh water resources. Fresh water resources often determine the port scale.
(5) Support of great cities and large enterprises. Great cities and large enterprises will supply plenty
of cargoes and excellent distributing conditions, their strong support will fasten the port
development.
(6) Port service system. Port service system will ensure the efficient work of the port.
Why does it is essential to maintain port structure
What are the key principles and types of maintenance of port structures
Asset management system that commonly practice in the port

26. HafezAhmad
26FGCU
How seaport degrade water quality

27. HafezAhmad
27FGCU
Enlist and show the relationship of different stakeholder s involved in the port operation and
management using linkage map
Port and regional development
Evaluation of port performance and productivity
Port productivity is defined as the number of container moves per hour of time spent by vessels in
port. In fact a meaningful evaluation of a port’s performance will require sets of measures relating
to
The duration of a ship’s stay in port
The quality of the cargo-handling
The quality of service to inland transport vehicles during their passage through the port
Performance indicators quantify and simplify information for decision-makers and other
stakeholders to assess how activities and operations affect the direction and magnitude of change
in terms of social economic, governance and environmental conditions.
Define port planning? Port planning process with component

28. HafezAhmad
28FGCU
Port planning is a management tool that assists in the decision-making process and is primarily
focused on guiding port activities by adopting a strategic perspective of the situation.
Three different types of port planning by port authorities can be distinguished:
Short-term planning involves the current allocation of the port’s resources and services.
The resulting decisions aim at solving practical problems related to e.g. efficient cargo-
handling, vessel turnaround and reasonable levels of utilization of port facilities.
Medium-term planning involves both financial and strategic planning, often reported
through business plans. Strategic plans, which usually are prepared every three to five
years, aim at allocating port resourcesto different activities and to meet specific marketing
and financial objectives.
Long-term planning demands a more fundamental and visionary approach, in most cases
embodied in the development of port master plans or strategic port plans. The output is
a physical plan (including capital budgeting) for the future development of port
infrastructure and other capabilities and capacities with a planning horizon of 10 to 30
years.
A typical strategic port planning process consists of five different building blocks or
phases in the development.
STEP 1: Formulate a mission or strategic intent: The starting point in the strategic port
planning process is the formulation of a strategic intent or missionstatement of the port.
A strategic intent reflects the long-term objective of a port and, by definition, is
very ambitious.
STEP 2. Assess the gap between abilities and ambitions: The strategic intent as defined
in step 1 may lead to the identification of a difference between what the port is able to
do (abilities) and what the port should do (ambitions). In order to get a full picture of
this gap a port on the one hand should assess its port specific resources and competencies
and perform an internal appraisal of its organizational strengths and weaknesses. On the
other hand a port should assess its competitive environment by performing an external
appraisal of the environmental opportunities and threats available in the market
environment.
STEP 3: create resources to fill the gap: A port can narrow the gap between resources
and the ambitions set out in the strategic intent by creating new valuable resources. Port
management should integrate the process of the development of new resources into its
strategic planning. A port’s effectiveness is determined by these assets and capabilities. In

29. HafezAhmad
29FGCU
order to become or remain competitive, port management has to identify, cultivate and
exploit its core competencies.
STEP 4: Strategy formulation and implementation: After identifying core competencies
and resources needed to fill the gap between the port’s abilities and the port’s ambitions
the next step is to determine strategies for developing a sustainable competitive
advantage. Strategy formulationshould be aimed at designing a strategy that makes most
effective use of these core resources and capabilities. Objectives and targets should in
principle cover the following fields: marketing, operation, finance, manpower and
environment. Once a strategic plan has the full support of the entire port organization, the
actual strategy implementation can include the following basic actions:
Reallocation of resources (labor skills, technological equipment);
Reorganization of management or port services provided;
Investments in new and existing physical (e.g. terminal) or non-physical (e.g. education)
assets;
Implementation of efficiency-orientedmeasures to lower port user’ costs or port operating
costs;
Implementation of measures to improve sustainability of the port and the supply chains;
Change in institutional and governance related aspects of the port
Step 5: Evaluate the effectiveness of chosen strategies: Strategy evaluation should
primarily be concerned with the question whether the port is on the right track for closing
the gap between ‘abilities’ and ‘ambitions’ and is achieving this at the desired rate. This
evaluation must not only consider whether the strategy has been implemented properly and
is effective in achieving the objectives and targets.
Why does it is essential to maintain port structure? What are the key principles and types of
maintenance of port structures ?
Port economics > how port industry boost up the economy of a country?
Port Economics covers the historical development of port organization and technology, production
measures, short- and long-term cost functions, pricing, and investment.
Gross value-added, which provides an insight into the contribution of port
activity to the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) or GRP (Gross Regional Product)
in a given period of time (often annually).

30. HafezAhmad
30FGCU
Employment is mainly expressed in full-time equivalent (FTE) and provides an
insight into how port activities contribute to employment creation. In most cases,
a snapshot is taken once a year to provide the total employment port activities
represent.
Trade volumes (in values) provide an insight into the importance of the port(s)
for international trade.
Fiscal revenue gives an idea of how port activities contribute to the flow-back to
the Treasury of a country/region over a given period (often annually).
Investments by public and private sector in port activities over a given period
(often annually).
Preventive measures by which the port authority can control the adverse effects of port
development activities?
Environmental concerns at ports
Air pollution from port operations, including smog and particulate pollution.
Loss or degradation of wetlands.
Destruction of fisheries and endangered species.
Wastewater and storm water discharges.
Severe traffic congestion.
Noise and light pollution.

31. HafezAhmad
31FGCU
Loss of cultural resources.
Contamination of soil and water from leaking storage tanks.
Air releases from chemical storage or fumigation activities.
Solid and hazardous waste generation.
Soil runoff and erosion
Preventive measurements
Ballast water management
Harmful anti-fouling system
Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation
Reception facilities and garbage facilities
Marine logistics? key functions of maritime logistics
Maritime logistics is referred to as the process of planning, implementing and managing the
movement of goods and information involved in the ocean carriage. The main issue in maritime
logistics lies down in the concept of integration which has to be occurred in physical level
(intermodal or multimodal), economic/strategic level (vertical integration, management
structure) or organizational level (relationship based, people and process integration between
organizations)
There are three important actors in maritime logistics system: shipping, port/terminal operating,
and freight forwarding. The main port/terminal operations are; loading ships, discharging ships
and preparation of cargoes for final destination.
(PDF) Maritime Logistics (researchgate.net)
Shipping Port /terminal
operation
Freight forwarding
Main function 1.Moving cargoes
between ports
2. documentation
relating sea trade
3.container tracking
and information flow
4.providing
intermodal service
Shipping reception
Loading and
unloading cargoes
Connecting to inland
transportation
Warehousing
Offering distribution
center
Assembly
Repairing
Inland connections
Booking vessels and
preparing for requisite
documents for ocean
carriage and trade on
behalf of shippers.
Inventory
management
Packaging
Warehousing

32. HafezAhmad
32FGCU
Marine logistics versus maritime transportation
Maritime transportation Maritime logistics
Concept The process of carrying and
handling cargoes across the
ocean
The process of planning , implementing and
managing the movement of goods and
information involved in the ocean carriage
Focusing
point
Maritime transportation
emphasizes individual functions
relating to sea transportation each
function pursues its own aims or
competitiveness
Maritime logistics is concerned with not only
individual’s functions relating to sea
transportation but also an effective logistics
flow as systematic entity of the logistics
integration system.
Managerial
function
Sea transportation activities
contracting , shipping , sea
voyage moving cargo and
loading and unloading
Sea transportation activities
Contracting shipping , sea voyage ,moving
cargo ,loading and unloading , additional
logistics services :
Stripping /stuffing , storage , warehouse,
offering a distribution center , packaging ,
repacking and repairing and inland connection
and re-use
There are three important actors in maritime logistics system: shipping, port/terminal operating,
and freight forwarding.
Process of maritime logistics
The process of logistics actually begins way before the actual shipment takes place as it involves
discussing and deciding on the delivery schedules suitable to both the buyer and the seller.
placing an order
picking up the goods
getting to the port
docking

33. HafezAhmad
33FGCU
back on the truck
final delivery
Long term and short term effect of dredging of the port area
Dredging results in the short term degradation of animals, vegetation and microbial communities
that live in the dredged sediment. This reduces the estuary’s capacity for nutrient cycling, primary
production and habitat provision and can have flow on effects up the food web.
Dredging exposes anaerobic layers of sediment, potentially disturbing and remobilising toxic
sediments, releasing contaminants. This has implications for water quality.
Changes in channel profile caused by dredging can increase tidal area, wave height and water
velocity, resulting in bank erosion. Eroding banks threaten mangroves and other mudbank
communitites and can lead to increased turbidity.
Short term Long term
noise pollution
turbidity
removal of bottom fauna
1.habitat loss
2. re-suspension of buried contaminated
sediments
3. exchange of saline and local water
Which one would you suggest for an estuary port ? why ?
Port management is the process of keeping ports organized, supervised, and functioning properly.