This document discusses various pigments found in plants and animals. It describes pigments such as chlorophyll, carotenoids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, tannins, betalains, quinones, xanthones, melanin, carotenoids, carotenoproteins, tetrapyrroles and chromatophores. It provides details on the structure, function and occurrence of these pigments in plants and animals, and how they contribute to the colors observed in different organisms.

1. PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
PIGMENTS
SNEHA.P.M. 2ND BT
PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
PIGMENTS

2. WHAT IS PIGMENT?
A pigment is a substance that appears a certain color because it selectively
absorbs wavelength of light. ... Pigments that either fade or else blacken over
time or with extended exposure to light are called fugitive pigments.Pigment, any
of a group of compounds that are intensely coloured and are used to colour other
materials.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF PIGMENTS:
The pigments are produced by the living organisms and have a colour, which
results from the colour absorption techniques. There are two different types of
pigments an are classified base on their sources:
ORGANIC PIGMENTS
The organic pigments are made from some of the Natural sources.

4. INORGANIC PIGMENTS;
The inorganic pigments, also called the synthetic pigments are derived from the
coal tars and some of the other form of petrochemicals. In some rare cases, these
pigments can also be synthesized by a simpler form of chemical reactions called
oxidation.

5. PLANT PIGMENTS:
Normal constituents of cells or tissues that impact colour.It has another
properties such as energy receptors, carriers of O2, Protects against radiation.
● Chlorophylls
● Carotenoids
● Flavonoids
● Anthocyanins
● Tannins
● Betalains
● Quinones
● Xanthones

6. PIGMENTS IN PLANTS:
Plants have a unique feature of capturing the light energy and convert it into
sugars through the process called photosynthesis. The process begins with the
absorption of light energy by some specialized form of organic molecules, called
the pigments. The photosynthesis, a biological process requires green coloured
pigment called chlorophyll along with other forms of yellow and red coloured
pigments.
Other essential plant pigments include anthocyanins, betalains, carotenoids,
and much more. All these pigments stimulate the process of chemical reactions
by reflecting the wavelengths.

7. CHLOROPHYLL:
Chlorophyll is one of the primary pigment
found within the plant cells of all green plants.
The green colouring of the plant leaves and the
tender part of the stem is due to the presence of
a pigment called chlorophyll. The chlorophyll
pigment is the most significant and essential
pigments, as it plays a vital role in the
biological process of photosynthesis.

8. There are different types of chlorophyll pigments
and are classified mainly based on their structure,
functions and other features. The different types of
chlorophyll pigments are:
Chlorophyll a– found in algae, cyanobacteria and in
all higher plants.
Chlorophyll b– found only in green algae and in
higher plants.
Chlorophyll c– found in certain photosynthetic
Chromista and in some marine algae.
Chlorophyll d– found only in red algae.
Chlorophyll e– found only in algae.
Among all these five types of chlorophyll pigments,
chlorophyll a and b are considered as the primary
photosynthetic pigments.

9. CAROTENOIDS;
Carotenoids are the pigments in the form of
orange, red, yellow colours. These
compounds are insoluble in water and are
attached to the membranes of the cell
bodies. These Biomolecules are
antioxidants which promote a good eyesight
in humans.

10. OCCURENCE OF CAROTENOIDS:
● Animals cannot synthesize carotenoids so their presence is due to dietary
intake.
● Carotenoids are the most complex class of natural food colourants with
around 750 different structures identified.
● Carotenoids can be divided into carotenes containing only carbon and
hydrogen.
● They are found in the chloroplast and chromoplasts in plants and animals.

11. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF CAROTENOIDS:
● Carotenoids has two structural
groups they are hydrocarbon
carotenes and oxygenated
xanthophyll.
● This xanthophyll contains
hydroxyl,epoxy, aldehyde and
ketone groups.
● The basic carotenoids backbone
structure consists of isoprene units
linked by covalently in either
head-to-tail or tail-to-tail
fashion.

12. LYCOPENE:
● Being a precursor in the
biosynthesis of beta-carotene,
lycopene can be expected to be
found in plants.
● The best known source of lycopene
are Tomatoes, Watermelon, Guava
and Pink Grapefruit.
● In Tomato oleoresin also contains
appreciable amounts of beta-
carotene,Phytoene and
phytofluene.

13. LUTEIN:
● Lutein is also very common
carotenoids.
● The name is derived from Latin
word for Yellow.
● Lutein is made from Aztee
Marigold also contains some
Zeaxanthin(Typically less than
10%)
● Containing only ten conjugated
double bonds, lutein is more
yellowish green.

14. FLAVONOIDS;
Flavonoids are a type of yellow coloured
pigments, which are abundantly found in
lemons, grapefruit, oranges and in some ark
and yellow coloured flowers. This type of
pigments is largely found in the plastids and
cytoplasm of the plant cell. Flavonoids are the
chemicals with the antioxidant properties and
help in lowering the cholesterol levels.

15. OCCURENCE OF FLAVONOIDS:
● Flavonoids or bioflavonoids(From latin word Flavus meaning Yellow, their
colour in nature) are a class of plants secondary metabolites.
● Over 5000 naturally occurring flavonoids have been characterized from
various plants.
● They have been classified according to their chemical structure, and are
usually subdivided into the following groups:
SUB GROUPS:
● Anthoxanthins(Flavone and Flavonol).
● Flavonones
● Flavonols
● Anthocyanidinds.

16. STRUCTURE OF FLAVONOIDS:
Chemically they have the general structure of a 15carbon skeleton, which consists
of two phenyl rings(A and B) and heterocyclic ring (C).
The chemical group in flavonoid is O- heterocyclic compounds.

18. ANTHOCYANINS;
Anthocyanins are a type of flavonoid
pigments found naturally in all the
tissues of the higher group of plants.
This pigment functions by providing
colour to the stem, leaves, roots, fruits,
and flowers. Based on their pH, these
type of pigments appears red, blue,
purple and other dark colours.

19. OCCURENCE OF ANTHOCYANINS:
● Anthocyanins occur in all tissues of higher plants, mostly in Flowers
and fruits but also in leaves, stems and roots.
● In these parts they are predominantly found in the outer cell layers
such as epidermis and peripheral mesophyll cells and also cell
vacuole.
● No fewer than 109 tons of anthocyanins are produced in nature per
year.
● Not all land plants contain anthocyanins in the
caryophyllales(Including cactus,beets and amaranth)they are
replaced by Betalains.
● Anthocyanins and carotenoids contribute distinctive pigmentation to
blood oranges.

20. STRUCTURE OF ANTHOCYANINS:
● The basic structure of anthocyanins is 2-
phenylbenzopyrylium of flavyliam salts.
● They differ in the number of polyhydroxy
and polymethoxy derivative of the salt.
● An anthocyanin pigment composed of an
aglycone esterified to one or more sugars
with O- heterocyclic compounds.
● When the sugar moiety of an anthocyanin is
hydrolyzed the aglycone,is called
ANTHOCYANIDIN.

22. TANNINS:
Tannin solutions are acid and
have an astringent taste. Tannin is
responsible for the astringency, colour,
and some of the flavour in tea. Tannins
occur normally in the roots, wood, bark,
leaves, and fruit of many plants,
particularly in the bark of oak species and
in sumac and myrobalan.

23. OCCURENCE OF TANNINS:
● A tannin are special compound,water soluble polyphenolic
compounds with molecular weight between 500-3000.
● The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of
plants where they play a role in protection and predation.
● They are commonly found in both gymnosperm and in angiosperms.
● The most abundant polyphenols are the condensed tannins and
comprising upto 50% of the dry weight of leaves.
● Tannins are found in leaf,bud,seed,root,stem tissues and vacuoles or
surface wax of plants, mostly found in the growth areas of trees.
● Bark of the oak trees and grape seeds are source of tannins.

24. STRUCTURE OF TANNINS:
Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that
bind to and precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including
amino acids and alkaloids. ... Tannins have molecular weights ranging from 500
to over 3,000 (gallic acid esters) and up to 20,000 (proanthocyanidins).
There are three major classes of tannins:
● Hydrolyzable tannins(Gallic acid)
● Non-hydrolyzable or condensed tannins (Flavone)
● Phlorotannins (Phloroglucinol).

25. ANATOMY OF A GRAPE:

26. BETALAINS:
Betalains are a red and yellow color pigment
of indole derivatives. It can be easily found
in plants of the Caryophyllales. Betalains are
related to anthocyanins and are
replacements for anthocyanin pigments.
Both (betalains and anthocyanin) are water
soluble and are present in vacuoles of plant
cells.

27. OCCURENCE OF BETALAINS:
● The name betalain comes from the Latin name of the common
beet(BEETA VULGARIS) from which Betalains was first extracted.
● Betalains are a class of red and yellow indole derived.
● These pigments found in the plants of the caryophyllales, where they
replace anthocyanin pigments.
● They are most often noticable in the petals of flowers,but may colour
the fruits, leaves, stems and roots of plants that contain them.
● Betalains water soluble pigments found in the vacuoles of plants
cells.

28. CATEGORIES OF BETALAINS:
1.BETACYANINS:
● It includes the reddish to violet Betalains pigment.
● Betacyanins present in plants include betanin,isobetanin,probetanin and
neobetanin.
2.BETAXANTHINS:
● They are Betalain pigment that appear Yellow to Orange.
● Betaxanthins in plants include Vulgaxanthin,Miraxanthin,Portulaxanthin
and Indicaxanthin.

29. STRUCTURE OF BETALAINS:
● It is now known that Betalains are aromatic indole derivatives synthesized
from tyrosine (N-heterocyclic compounds).
● Each Betalains is a glycoside and consist of a sugar and a coloured portion.
● For example: Betalains contain nitrogen whereas anthocyanin do not.
● Source of Betalains are red beet-root,swiss chard, cactus,pear and
amaranth.

30. QUINONES:
Quinones are a class of natural and
synthetic compounds that have several
beneficial effects. Quinones are
electron carriers playing a role in
photosynthesis. As vitamins, they
represent a class of molecules
preventing and treating several
illnesses such as osteoporosis and
cardiovascular diseases.

31. OCCURENCE OF QUINONES:
● They are widely distributed in plants, especially trees which gives colour of
wood and bitter in taste.
● Derivatives of quinones are common constituents of biologically active
molecules.
● Some serve as electron acceptor in electron transport chain such as those in
photosynthesis(Plastoquinone,Phyllo quinone) and aerobic
respiration(Ubiquinone).
● Most quinones are bitter in taste.
● Their contribution to the colour of plants is minimal.
● Colour changes occur by the addition of hydroxyl groups.

32. STRUCTURE OF QUINONES:
The quinones are a class of organic compounds that are formally "derived
from aromatic compounds [such as benzene or naphthalene] by conversion of an
even number of –CH= groups into –C(=O)– groups with any necessary
rearrangement of double bonds", resulting in "a fully conjugated cyclic dione
structure".

33. XANTHONES:
Xanthone is an organic compound with the
molecular formula C₁₃H₈O₂. In 1939,
xanthone was introduced as an insecticide
and it currently finds uses as ovicide for
codling moth eggs and as a larvicide.
Xanthone is also used in the preparation
of xanthydrol, which is used in the
determination of urea levels in the blood.

34. OCCURENCE OF XANTHONES:
● These pigments are yellow, phenolic pigments they are confused with
Quinones and Flavones because of their structural characteristics.
● Many xanthones are phytochemicals, found in plants(In the families
Bonnetiaceae,Clusiaceae,Podostemaceae).
● Some xanthones are found in the pericap of the mangosteen fruit
(Garcinia Mangostana).

35. STRUCTURE OF XANTHONES:
Xanthone is the parent compound of the xanthone class consisting of xanthene
bearing a single oxo substituent at position 9. It has a role as an insecticide.

36. ANIMAL
PIGMENTS

37. PIGMENTS IN ANIMALS:
Pigments present in animals are by nature which makes them colourful in
nature.Some animals get their colour through what they eat……
There are various kinds of pigments present in Animals.They are:
● Carotenoids
● Carotenoproteins
● Tetrapyrroles
● Melanin
● Chromataphores.

38. CAROTENOIDS IN ANIMALS:
Marine animals accumulate carotenoids from foods such as algae and other
animals and modify them through metabolic reactions. Many of the carotenoids
present in marine animals are metabolites of β-carotene, fucoxanthin,
peridinin, diatoxanthin, alloxanthin, and astaxanthin, etc.

39. STRUCTURE OF CAROTENOIDS:
The general structure of the carotenoid
is a polyene chain consisting of 9-11
double bonds and possibly terminating
in rings. ... The length of carotenoids
also has a role in plant coloration, as
the length of the polyene tail
determines which wavelengths of light
the plant will absorb.

40. TETRAPYRROLES:
Tetrapyrroles are a class of chemical compounds that contain four pyrrole
or pyrrole-like rings. The pyrrole/pyrrole derivatives are linked by
(=(CH)- or -CH2- units), in either a linear or a cyclic fashion. Pyrroles
are a five-atom ring with four carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom.
Tetrapyrroles are common cofactors in biochemistry and their
biosynthesis and degradation feature prominently in the chemistry of life.

41. STRUCTURE OF TETRAPYRROLES:
Linear tetrapyrroles(called bilanes) include:
● Heme breakdown products(eg.bilirubin,biliverdin).
● Phycobilins(found in cyanobacteria).
● Luciferins as found in dinoflagellates and euphausiid shrimps(Krill).

42. MELANIN:
Melanin is the main pigment found in
mammals. It is responsible for the color of
hair and fur. There are different types of
melanin (eumelanin and pheomelanin), and
they produce a huge color range, from black
to sandy to red. A lion's coloring is
produced by melanin.

43. PROPERTIES OF MELANIN;
Melanins seem to be heterogeneous, with some small regions of order at the
nanometer scale. The optical properties we can see depend on the ability of
monomers and oligomers (made up of small numbers of monomers) that make
up melanin to absorb light, and the ability of melanin particles to reflect and
scatter incident light for different wavelengths.

44. FLAVINS:
Flavin, also called Lyochrome, any of a
group of pale-yellow, greenly fluorescent
biological pigments (biochromes) widely
distributed in small quantities in plant and
animal tissues. Flavins are synthesized only
by bacteria, yeasts, and green plants; for
this reason, animals are dependent on plant
sources for them, including riboflavin
(vitamin B2), the most prevalent member of
the group.

45. CHROMATOPHORES;
Amphibians’ and reptiles’ skin contains three
kinds of highly branched color cells called
chromatophores. The chromatophores occur in
three discrete layers. The top layer is generally
made of xanthophores bearing yellow pigments;
the middle layer includes iridophores; and the
bottom layer has melanophores with black or
brown melanin.

48. OTHER WAYS THAT ORGANISMS CREATE COLOURS;
Fireflies and bacteria emit light in the form of
bioluminescence. Luciferins are a class of
light-emitting biological substance found in
these organisms.
Although animals do manufacture their own
melanin, they can’t make many other
pigments. Plants, however, can produce a
range of pigments, so many animals are
colored by what they eat.

49. DISEASE CAUSED
BY LACK OF
PIGMENTS.
Four diseases caused by lack of
pigmentation.
● ALBINISM: Inherited disorder
by partial loss of Melanin
pigment.
● LAMELLAR ICHTHYOSIS:
Fish scale disease,Excess
production of Melanin
pigment.
● MELASMA: Dark brown
patches of pigment appear on
face.
● LEUCISM: Partial loss of
pigmentation in animals.

50. WHITE ANIMALS:(Albinism)
White animals are often found in nature and
sometimes the cause is albinism. Melanin is the
primary pigment that determines the color of a
mammal`s skin, fur, and eyes. Albinism occurs
in mammals (including humans), fish, birds,
reptiles, and amphibians. It is a hereditary
condition; the principal gene which results in
albinism prevents the body from making the
usual amounts of the pigment melanin.

51. LAMELLAR ICHTHYOSIS:
Lamellar ichthyosis is a rare genetic
condition that affects the skin. Infants
affected by lamellar ichthyosis are
generally born with a shiny, waxy layer of
skin (called a collodian membrane) that is
typically shed within the first two weeks of
life. The skin beneath the collodian
membrane is red and scaly.

52. LEUCISM:
Leucism is a term used to describe a wide
variety of conditions which result in the
partial loss of pigmentation in an animal—
which causes white, pale, or patchy
coloration of the skin, hair, feathers, scales
or cuticles, but not the eyes. It is
occasionally spelled leukism.

54. REFERENCE:
Book of Natural
dyes and
pigments.