This document summarizes the physiology of lactation. It discusses the development of breasts from embryogenesis through pregnancy and lactation. It describes the anatomy and histology of breasts. It explains the role of hormones such as prolactin, estrogen, and progesterone in breast development and milk production. It discusses the phases of lactation including mammogenesis, lactogenesis, galactokinesis, and galactopoiesis. It also covers the composition and formation of human milk and the advantages of breastfeeding for both mothers and babies.
physiology of labor includes the contraction and retraction of the muscles of uterus. I hope this presentation will help the persons of concerned subject.
physiology of labor includes the contraction and retraction of the muscles of uterus. I hope this presentation will help the persons of concerned subject.
During pregnancy, the cardiac output increases by 30 to 60%, with the majority of the increase occurring during the first trimester. The maximum output is reached between 20 and 24 weeks and is maintained until delivery. Initially, the increase in cardiac output is due to an increase in stroke volume
Note: This document is just for academic purposes and should not be used as a basis for practical treatment, any consequences as a result of practically using this as a guidline will not lead to the publisher held accountable.
The breast is a gland consisting primarily of connective and fatty tissues that support and protect the milk producing areas of the breast. The milk is produced in small clusters of cells called the alveoli. The milk then travels down ducts to the nipples. Breast milk provides ideal nutrition and passive immunity for the infant, encourages mild uterine contractions to return the uterus to its pre-pregnancy size and induces a substantial metabolic increase in the mother, consuming the fat reserves stored during pregnancy. Thus this document, will converse in details the process of milk production to its let down and the characteristics of the breast milk.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
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Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
4. Development of Breast.
Present in both the sexes but rudimentary in
males & well developed in females.
Friday, May 10, 2019
5. Phases of development of
breast.
In intrauterine life
At birth
At puberty
In pregnancy
During lactation
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6. Breast in intrauterine life
(Embryogenesis)
Mammary bud – at 18-19
weeks of gestation
thickened mass of
epithelium develop.
16-20 solid outgrowths
arises & project into dermis
Then this thickened mass &
outgrowth canalized – form
Rudimentary duct system.
Friday, May 10, 2019
7. Breast in intrauterine life
(Embryogenesis)
Terminal part of outgrowth
proliferate into secretory
elements, Occurs at puberty.
Proximal end of each duct
opens into common pit by
cavitation of thickened
mass
Growth of mesodermal
tissue pushes wall of the pit
outwards as Nipple.
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8. Breast at birth
At birth rudimentary as tiny nipples & few
ducts radiating from it.
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9. Breast at puberty
Upto puberty remain quiescent then changes
occurs
Thelarche – (9-11 yrs of age) at the time of
puberty before menses.
Breast gets enlarged & only duct system proliferate
& shows branching.
Friday, May 10, 2019
10. Breast at puberty
At Menarche – after menses cyclical growth
correspond with menstrual cycle.
In proliferative phase – duct cells proliferate.
In luteal phase – progesterone stimulate
proliferation of terminal ductules – glandular
tissue forms.
Friday, May 10, 2019
11. Breast at puberty
At Menstruation –as both oestrogen &
progesterone levels no prolifearation of
duct cells & glandular tissue.
With further cycles progressive growth
occurs with fat deposition in adipose tissue.
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12. Breast in pregnancy
Growth of both – Glandular & Ductal tissue
occurs.
Only during first pregnancy glandular tissue
develops fully.
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13. Breast in pregnancy
In first half – Duct system proliferate &
shows sprouting & branching along with
growth of stroma & deposition of fat.
In second half – growth of glandular tissue
occurs.
Friday, May 10, 2019
14. Breast during lactation
After child birth alveolar cells get enlarged &
distended & starts forming milk
(Lactogenesis)
Involution – after normal period of lactation
(7-9 months) alveolar epithelium undergoes
apoptosis & glands revert back to non-
pregnant state.
Friday, May 10, 2019
15. Functional anatomy of breast.
Gross anatomy –
round elevated
structure present over
pectoral region, with
central dark
pigmented area
-areola & projected
above surface -
Nipple.
Friday, May 10, 2019
16. Histological structure.
The fascia covering mammary gland is
connected by suspensory ligaments to
overlying skin & underlying muscle.
Consists of 15-20 lobes & each lobe has
number of lobules.
Glandular tissue – consists of alveoli having
secretary cells
Friday, May 10, 2019
17. Histological structure.
Secretion – Apocrine in nature by exocytosis
into ducts.
About 15-20 ducts opens at summit of nipple
Just before opening lactiferous ducts shows
dilatation called – Lactiferous sinus.
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18. Histological structure.
Smaller ductules lined by single columnar
epithelial cells & near opening at nipple lined
by squmous cells.
Around alveoli ductules & lobules are
present in myoepithelial cells – so squeeze &
pour content into ductules.
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19. Electron microscopically.
Secretory cells contains rough & smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, numerous
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus & Lysosomes.
Protein as membrane bound vesicles & fat as
large globule.
Friday, May 10, 2019
20. Control of breast development
and growth
Oestrogen – mainly for ductal growth & fat deposition,
also causes thickening of nipple.
Progesterone – for Glandular tissue development.
Other hormones – Growth hormone, thyroxine, cortisol &
insulin cause growth & development.
Corpus luteal & placental hormones – during pregnancy
Prolactin.
Friday, May 10, 2019
22. HUMAN PROLACTIN
Structure &
secretion
Single peptide chain
secreted by
acidophilic cells of
anterior pituitary
gland.
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23. Placental concentration
Pulsatile
Shows diurnal variations
During pregnancy – start at 8th
week & peak
(200-400 ng/ml) at term
Sources – placenta, amniotic fluid & maternal
anterior pituitary gland.
During pregnancy & lactation – affected by
oestrogen.
Friday, May 10, 2019
24. Control of prolactin secretion
Hypothalamic
control – Prolactin
inhibitory factor from
Arcuate nucleus of
hypothalamus acts on
anterior pituitary
gland.
Friday, May 10, 2019
33. Formation of milk.
Mammary gland – metabolically active
Amino acids , FA, glucose & Ca derived from
plasma into alveolar cells
Process involved are
Fat synthesis & secretion
Ion & water secretion
Transcytosis of immunoglobulins
Exocytosis.
Friday, May 10, 2019
34. Galactokinesis
expulsion of milk
Milk ejection
Milk expulsion
Milk let down
Suckling effect.
(Psychological
component)
Cry, sight, sound.
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36. Galactopoiesis
Maintenance of milk secretion.
Depend on surge in prolactin secretion.
In nursing mothers reflex causes 10-20 fold
rise in prolactin secretion for 1 hr & it occurs
at every feeding.
It depend on infants demand.
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37. Importance of lactation.
Advantages of breastfeeding to the baby
Advantages of breastfeeding to the
mother.
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38. Advantages of breastfeeding to
the baby
Balanced diet – contains proteins, minerals, fats,
carbohydrates & vitamins
Protection against infection – high lymphocytes,
neutrophils, macrophages, lysozymes &
immunoglobulins.
Easily digestible
Growth factors – epidermal growth factors, insulin
& somatostatin C
Other – sterile, convenient, inexpensive, no allergy.
Friday, May 10, 2019
39. Advantages of breastfeeding to
the mother.
Lactational ammenorrhoea (natural
contraception)
Involution of uterus.
Protection against breast engorgement.
Protection against obesity – body fat used for
milk synthesis.
Emotional bonding.
Protection against cancer.
Friday, May 10, 2019