The document provides an overview of phonology, focusing on the organization of speech sounds, phonemes, allophones, and related concepts such as minimal pairs and complementary distribution. Key definitions and examples illustrate how sound variations impact meaning and the rules governing phonetic changes. References and examples from English and Indonesian highlight the practical applications of phonological theories.

1. Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
PHONOLOGY
Introduction to Linguistics
Dosen Pembimbing : Siti Mukminatun S.S., M.Hum
Bella Kirana (16202241025)
Ninda Striratna Taj Hanun (16202241038)
Amalia Hani Nugrahaeni (16202244012)
Salma Hamalna Suryaningrum (16202244041)

2. What is phonology?
Phonology : studies how sounds are organized in
particular languages (Panevov’a dan Hana, 2010)
Phonology : the study of how speech sounds form
pattern of sounds in a language and across
language. For formally, phonology is the study of
the categorical organization of speech sounds in
languages; how speech sounds are organized in
the mind and used to convey meaning.

3. Phonemes
A phoneme is the smallest contrastive linguistic unit
which may bring about a change of meaning. For
example 'mat' and 'bat'. Phonemes are based on
spoken language and recorded by IPA (International
Phonetic Alphabet). They are written beetween
slashes.. e.g. /p/
Examples:
English: pan and ban, fast and first,
with and
whizz
Indonesian: Tanah and panah
Javanese: tutuk (mouth) and
thuthuk (hit)

4. Phones
A phone is a unit of speech sound. It may refer to
any speech sound or gesture without regard of its
place in phonology of a language. A phoneme is a
set of phones or a set of sound features that are
thought of as the same element within the
phonology of a particular language.
 the realization of a phoneme
Symbols: using narrow
transcription.
Example:
[p], [ph] are the realization/phones
of /p/

5. Allophones
Allophones are variations of phonemes. So, they
are set of possible spoken sounds used to
prounounce one single phoneme.
Example:
[pʰ] (as in pin) and [p] (as in spin) are allophones
of the phoneme /p/. They are written in brackets.

6. Minimal pairs
 A minimal pair are two words with distinct meanings that
differ by only one sound found in the same position in
each form.
 The only way we can create a minimal pair with reference
to the two sounds involved is to put them in exactly the
same environment in terms of word position and the
surrounding context. To clarify further, the pair: jail–Yale
shows the contrast between /dʒ/ and /j/ in initial
position, budge–buzz focuses on the contrast between
/dʒ/ and /z/ in final position, while witch–wish
contrasts /t∫/ and /ʃ/ in final position. It should be noted
that minimal pairs include forms that have
different spellings, as evidenced in jail–Yale. (Yavas and
Wiley-Blackwell, 2011)
Example :
Minimal Pairs /e/ and /eı/ wet wait
Minimal Pairs /f/ and /v/ fan van

7. Complementary Distribution
 The two sounds, that always occur in different
environment, they never occur at the same position
Example :
spat[spæt] pat[phæt] - spat[sphæt]
pat[pæt]
spool[spul] pool[phul] - spool[sphul]
pool[pul]

8. Free Variation
 Two (or more) sounds appear in the same position,
but it does not make a different meaning
Example :
[lip] leap or [liph] leap
[sowp] soap or [sowph] soap
In English, [p] and [ph] are allophones of the same
phoneme

9. Consonant of English

11. Vowel of English

13. Diphtong of English

14. Tripthong of English

15. Word Stress
In many language, including English, one or more
of the syllables in every content word are
stressed.
Stress can be contrastive in English.
For example:
Word “pervert” and “subject”
Pérvert (noun) and pervért (verb)
Súbject (noun) and subjéct (verb)

16. Epenthesis (segment insertion)
 Inserts a syllabic or non-syllabic segment within an
existing string of segments
 The process of inserting a consonant or vowel
 Insert a [ə] before the plural morpheme /z/ when a
regular noun ends in a sibilant, giving [əz].
∅ → ə / [+sibilant] ___ [+sibilant]
e.g. Judge /ʤʌʤ/ judges /
ʤʌʤz/ 
/ʤʌʤəz/

17. Phonological Rules
 Assimilation
 Dissimilation
 Segment Deletion
 Epenthesis
 Metathesis

18. Assimilation
 The vowel nasalization rule is an assimilation rule
that makes neighboring segments more similar by
adding the feature [+nasal] to the vowel.
 Occurs when one segment influences another
 Results from a sound becoming more like another
nearby sound in terms of one of more of its
phonetic characteristics
Example :
news /z/ but newspaper /s/
A sound becomes similar to the
following
sound
V -> [+nasal]/_[+nasal]$

19. Dissimilation
 It certain segments becomes less similar to other
segments.
 Results in two sounds becoming less alike in articulatory
or acoustic terms
 The resulting sequence of sounds is easier to articulate
and distinguish
e.g. fifths [fθs] → [fts]
-al -ar
anecdot-al
angul-ar
annu-al
annul-ar

20. Segment Deletion
 Removes a segment from certain phonetic contexts
Such rule occurs in casual or rapid speech.
In English, [ə] is often deleted
 e.g. suppose [səpə́uz] --> [səpuz]
mystery general memory funeral vigorous Barbara
mystry genral memry funral vigrous Barbra
 Delete a /g/ in a word initially before a nasal
consonant or before a syllable-final nasal
consonant.
eg. sign/signature, design/ designation,
malign/malignant, paradigm/paradigmatic

21. Metathesis
 Reorders a sequence of segments
 Transposition of two letters or sounds in a word
 Often results in a sequence of phones that is easier to
articulate
e.g. Introduce  interduce
ask  aks
animal aminal
spaghetti  pasketti
partisipasi -> partisisapi
Old English vs Modern
English
bryd bird
hros horse

23. References
 http://allabout-linguistics.group.chef.ac.uk/branches-of
-linguistics/phonology/
 https://www.bayt.com/en/specialties/q/23493/what
-is-the-difference-between-phoneme-phone-and-
allophone/
 https://www.bayt.com/en/specialties/q/23493/what
-is-the-difference-between-phoneme-phone-and-
allophone/
 https://www.bayt.com/en/specialties/q/23493/what-is-
the-difference-between-phoneme-phone-and-
allophone/
 https://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/minimal-
pairs.htm

24.  (Fromkin: 253)
 (Fromkin p. 243)
 (Fromkin p. 245)
 (Fromkin p. 248)
 (Fromkin p. 247)
 http://slideplayer.com/slide/3853432/