1) Phonological processes are sound changes that occur in spoken language. This document discusses several English phonological processes including aspiration of consonants, flapping of /t/ and /d/, vowel lengthening before voiced consonants, and assimilation which causes sounds to become more similar to neighboring sounds. 2) The document also covers sound changes involving insertion, deletion, or modification of sounds within words through processes like epenthesis, metathesis, apocope, syncope, and apophony which involve internal changes to indicate grammatical information. 3) Examples of sound changes from other languages like Spanish and Tagalog are provided to illustrate how these phonological processes can vary across languages.

1. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES DR. RICELI C. MENDOZA University of Southern Mindanao PHILIPPINES

2. PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES 1. Aspiration is characteristic of voiceless stops consonants /p/,/t/, /k/ in English. Aspirated and unaspirated versions are positional variants. Substituting one for the other does not cause change of meaning of a word- it is merely an incorrect pronunciation. In some languages the difference between the aspirated and unaspirated can cause a difference in meaning just like Vietnamese: [tua] tassel [thua] lose [tu] repair [thu] mackerel [tin] smart [thin] silent Hence, aspirated and unaspirated sounds in Vietnamese are contrastive sounds (perceived as different sounds)

3. 2. Flapping- the tongue touches the tooth ridge and is quickly pulled back. The phonetic symbol used for a flap is /D/. When /t/ is pronounced as a flap, it is a positional variant of the /t/ sound. It only occurs between vowels when the preceding vowel is stressed: patio, platter The flap is also a positional variant of /d/ sound when it occurs between the stressed and an unstressed vowel: Flapped /t/ flapped /d/ putting pudding latter ladder writer rider litre leader bitter bidder

4. 3. Vowel Lengthening . A vowel is longer when it occurs before a voiced consonant than it is before a voiceless one. shorter vowel longer vowel beat b e a d back b a g bat b a d race r a i s e loose l o z e cap c a b

5. 4. Velarization- light and dark /l/. The /l/ before a vowel is light; the tip of the tongue should be the touching the tooth ridge. The /l/ before a vowel is dark; the tip of the tongue need not touch the tooth ridge. The back of the tongue is raised so that it is near the soft palate. Leaf-feel leak-pull late-pal plate-milk

6. 5. Assimilation causes a sound to become more like a neighboring sound with respect to some feature. Ex: vowel nasalization [~] , liquid and glide devoicing. LIQUIDS [l,r] and glides [w,w,y] become voiceless when they occur following a voiceless OBSTRRUENTS [ p, t, k, ?, f, s, h, c, s,]. pang + dikdik+pandikdik; pang +basa=pambansa; pang + luto +panluto

7. Insertion is the addition of one or more sounds to a word. Prothesis the addition of a sound to the start of a word or the prepending of phonemes at the beginning of a word without changing its morphological structure. This often happens in language learning when the language which is being learned has different combinations of vowels or consonant from the learner’s first language. For example, Spanish learners of English often say /espi:k/ for speak as Spanish does not have words starting with the consonant cluster /sp/.

8. Epenthesis is the addition of a vowel or consonant between sounds. It is divided into two types: excrescence (if the sound added is a consonant) and anaptyxis (if the sound added is a vowel). In English, a stop consonant is often added to break a nasal + fricative sequence English "hamster" often pronounced with an added "p" sound as [hæmpstəɹ] English "warmth" often pronounced with an added "p" sound as [wɔɹrmpθ] English "fence" often pronounced [fɛnts]

9. Many speakers of other languages do not use combination like the /Im/ or /Ip/ of English and add an epenthetic vowel, for example [ fil ә m] for film, and [hel ә p] for [help]; realtor-realator Paragoge : the addition of a sound to the end of a word. slack and slacken (no change in meaning) toward-towards anyway-anyways

10. Deletion/Elision (sound loss)eliminates a sound. This applies more frequently to unstressed syllables and in casual speech. Aphesis/aphaeresis: is the loss of one or more sounds from the beginning of a word, especially the loss of an unstressed vowel. Ex : /h/ may be deleted in unstressed syllables: He handed her his hat (the h in her and his is deleted). Arithmetic-rithmetic (the 3Rs)

11. Syncope: is the loss of one or more sounds from the interior of a word; especially, the loss of an unstressed vowel. go[ing t]o > gonna wa[nt t]o > wanna did n[o]t > didn't do[n't k]no[w] > dunno I [woul]d [h]ave > I'd've] police [plis], believe [bliv] dakip + in= dakipin-dakpin bukas + an = buksan-buksan

12. Apocope: is the loss of one or more sounds from the end of a word, and especially the loss of an unstressed vowel. photograph > photo réactionnaire > réac "reactionary“ animation > Japanese anime- synchronization > sync better there

13. 8. Apophony (also ablaut , gradation , alternation , internal modification , stem modification , stem alternation , replacive morphology , stem mutation , internal inflection ) is the alternation of sounds within a word that indicates grammatical information (often inflectional ). Apophony is exemplified in English as the internal vowel alternations that produce such related words as s i ng, s a ng, s u ng, s o ng r i se, r ai se b i nd, b ou nd g oo se, g ee se

14. The difference in these vowels marks variously a difference in tense or aspect (e.g. sing/sang/sung ), transitivity ( rise/raise ), part of speech ( sing/song , bind/bound ), or grammatical number ( goose/geese ). Similarly, there are consonant alternations which are also used grammatically: belie f , belie v e hou s e (noun), hou s e (verb) (phonetically: [haʊs] (noun), [haʊz] (verb))

15. The vowel alternation between i and a indicates a difference between present and past tense in the pair sing/sang . Here the past tense is indicated by the vowel a just as the past tense is indicated on the verb jump with the past tense suffix -ed . Likewise, the plural suffix -s on the word books has the same grammatical function as the presence of the vowel ee in the word geese (where ee alternates with oo in the pair goose/geese ).

16. 9. Metathesis is a sound change that alters the order of phonemes in a word . The most common instance of metathesis is the reversal of the order of two adjacent phonemes, such as "foilage" for foliage . Many languages have words that show this phenomenon, and some use it as a regular part of their grammar. A spoonerism is an error in speech or deliberate play on words in which corresponding consonants , vowels , or morphemes are switched. It is named after the Reverend William Archibald Spooner (1844–1930), Warden of New College, Oxford , who was notoriously prone to this tendency.While spoonerisms are commonly heard as slips of the tongue resulting from unintentionally getting one's words in a tangle, they can also be used intentionally as a play on words.

17. "Three cheers for our queer old dean!" (dear old queen, referring to Queen Victoria) "Is it kisstomary to cuss the bride?" (customary to kiss) "The Lord is a shoving leopard." (a loving shepherd) "A blushing crow." (crushing blow) "A well-boiled icicle" (well-oiled bicycle) "You were fighting a liar in the quadrangle." (lighting a fire) "Is the bean dizzy?" (dean busy) "Someone is occupewing my pie. Please sew me to another sheet." (occupying my pew...show me to another seat) "You have hissed all my mystery lectures. You have tasted a whole worm. Please leave Oxford on the next town drain." (missed...history, wasted...term, down train)