The document discusses the importance of considering social, political, and economic contexts (SPE contexts) in public relations. It argues that public relations efforts should give equal priority to the needs of external publics as the client organization. Issue management focuses more on how external issues and contexts affect the client organization, while the SPE approach advocates a more symmetric approach. The document presents six case studies of research projects conducted for various clients that analyzed SPE contexts through literature reviews, interviews, focus groups, and other methods. Each case study chapter describes the research methodology, findings, and implications for specific actions or policies.

1. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND
ECONOMIC CONTEXTS IN PUBLIC
RELATIONS:
Theory and Cases

2. Why the SPE Contexts?

3. Public relations efforts deal to some degree with
gaining resources and assessing their value to
people. These resources include person power
(time, skill, and willingness to behave in a
certain way), money, and material goods.
Questions of resource value are a major concern
of economics.

4. First, exchange theory in social psychology builds
on the basic economic proposition that people
normally work or pay only when they receive
something in return that they see as justifying
their inputs.
Second, standard-of-comparison theory in
psychology relates closely to the economic
notion of diminishing marginal utility.

5. Issues Management: A Related Focus
First, issues managers and environmental scanners
draw on social science concepts to evaluate client
contexts in ways from which public relations people
can profit.
Second, however, writings on issues management
such as Miles ( 1987) have an asymmetric ring not
quite in tune with the symmetric approach
advocated here for public relations.

6. Multiple Methodologies Needed
As we looked at our own research,
methodological issues intrigued us. Theory
building studies often use one or at most two
methodologies.

7. We felt compelled to draw on several
methodologies: a systematic review of social-
science and other professional or trade
literature, indepth interviews of experts and
others highly involved in some way with our
clients, focus groups, structured surveys, and
even participant observation.

8. Time and money constraints sometimes led us
to include fewer research strategies than might
seem ideal. But we found the various
approaches building on each other in ways not
fully captured by the many research-methods
books and chapters that approach them
separately.

9. we present six studies that we have done for
diverse clients:
1. a corporation,
2. a cause-oriented university center,
3. a professional society,
4. a police department,
5. a city government, and
6. a trade association.

10. • Each chapter covers a separate research
effort, focusing in turn on:
1. Review of literature that helps define context
at a national or international level
2. Review of the local SPE contexts, where
pertinent, based on direct observation, in-
depth interviews and attention to relevant
mass media.

11. 3. Brief description of research methodology for
the sequence of steps that we followed,
clarifying how Step I strengthens Step 2, etc.
4. Presentation of findings interpreted in light of
the SPE elements.

12. 5. Consideration of specific courses of action
suggested by, supported by, and/or called into
question by the reported research. In some
instances, the actions or policies discussed stem
directly from our research. In other cases, basic
ideas originated elsewhere but are assessed
more fully and rigorously as a result of the study
or studies reported.

13. 6. A brief review of research findings and
concepts that ties them concretely.

14. • Issue Defined
An issue is an ongoing public policy dispute
affecting organizational performance, such as
any continuing trend, event, or condition that
affects an organization. For example, an issue
might be diversity, or lack of it, in a plan,
program, or organization

15. Issue Management (IM) differs from the approach offered
here in at least two ways:
First, IM literature often has an asymmetric ring. That is,
the client organization practicing IM focuses on context
primarily in ways designed to insure its own survival and
enhancement. Traditionally, the client organization comes
first. On the other hand, we argue that study of the SPE
context can and should give at least as much priority to
the needs of external publics as to those of the clients.
This equal attention more closely resembles the two-way
symmetric model of public relations than does IM.

16. Second, context implies a focus on events,
people, and problems external to an
organization. Although IM scans the external
environment, the focus is the process within the
client organization that insures effective analysis
of outside forces, then translation into strategy
and tactics. Thus, IM serves as a link between
the SPE context and organizational decision
making and action.

17. Jones and Chase, contending public policy is at
the heart of their model, created five
classifications useful in defining issues.

18. Category Definition
1. Type
Social, political, economic,
technological
2. Impact and response source
Business system, industry,
corporation, subsidiary,
department
3. Geography
International, national,
regional, state, local
3. Spain of Control
Noncontrollable,
semicontrollable, controllable
4. Salience
Immediacy, prominence

19. The organizational ability to adapt and influence
the environment depends in part on the degree
to which public relations is involved in the
decisionmaking process ( Dozier, 1986; Ehling &
Hesse, 1983).Unquestionably, IM is risky
business (Heath & Nelson, 1986). Issues create
phenomenal opportunities but also pose
dangers for an organization. Related global and
localized changes include:

20. 1. shifts in wealth and power throughout the world;
2. a new type of worker: adventurous, artistic, seeking unlimited access to all
information that increases knowledge;
3.
4.
information overload
increased legal liabilities
5.
6.
inability of business to hide anything from the public, government, or media
a growing need for business to work with media in expeditious, fruitful ways
7. ethics that seem to be achieving higher priority; and problem solving that is
both complex and public (Pinsdorf, 1987).