PCR is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA across multiple cycles. It involves separating the DNA strands through heating, followed by primers annealing to the complementary DNA sequences. The DNA polymerase then extends the strands to exponentially increase copies of the target DNA. PCR has many applications in molecular biology, forensics, disease diagnosis and more due to its ability to amplify very small amounts of DNA.
PCR is a technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences. It involves repeated cycles of separating DNA strands through heating, annealing primers to the strands, and extending the strands with DNA polymerase. This process can produce billions of copies of the target DNA fragment. PCR is used in research, forensics, and medicine to detect genetic mutations and diseases.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifies specific DNA sequences using thermal cycling, allowing millions of copies of a target sequence to be generated in a few hours. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling DNA with primers and a DNA polymerase. Kary Mullis invented PCR in 1983, revolutionizing molecular biology. PCR is now widely used in forensics, medicine, biotechnology and research.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample in the presence of DNA polymerase and primers to generate millions of copies of the target sequence. PCR has many applications in molecular biology, biotechnology, and forensic science. It can be used to detect genetic diseases, identify pathogens, and generate unique DNA profiles for individual identification.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA, allowing millions of copies to be made in a few hours. It was invented by Kary Mullis in 1983 and involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample, along with primers and a DNA polymerase, to denature and copy the target DNA segment. PCR is now widely used in fields like forensics, genetics, medicine, and archaeology due to its ability to amplify trace amounts of DNA.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) allows for targeted amplification of specific DNA sequences. PCR works by repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to denature the double strand into single strands and allow primers to anneal and new strands to extend. This process can generate billions of copies of the target sequence. Key components of PCR include DNA template, primers, Taq polymerase, nucleotides, and repeated thermal cycling. PCR has many applications in research and forensic analysis by enabling amplification of rare DNA sequences.
PCR is a technique used to amplify a specific DNA sequence. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to denature and separate the DNA strands, followed by primer annealing and polymerase extension. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence. PCR requires a DNA template, DNA polymerase, primers, nucleotides, and repeated cycling between high and low temperatures. It has applications in research, forensics, medicine and molecular biology.
PCR is a technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences. It involves repeated cycles of separating DNA strands through heating, annealing primers to the strands, and extending the strands with DNA polymerase. This process can produce billions of copies of the target DNA fragment. PCR is used in research, forensics, and medicine to detect genetic mutations and diseases.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplifies specific DNA sequences using thermal cycling, allowing millions of copies of a target sequence to be generated in a few hours. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling DNA with primers and a DNA polymerase. Kary Mullis invented PCR in 1983, revolutionizing molecular biology. PCR is now widely used in forensics, medicine, biotechnology and research.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample in the presence of DNA polymerase and primers to generate millions of copies of the target sequence. PCR has many applications in molecular biology, biotechnology, and forensic science. It can be used to detect genetic diseases, identify pathogens, and generate unique DNA profiles for individual identification.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA, allowing millions of copies to be made in a few hours. It was invented by Kary Mullis in 1983 and involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample, along with primers and a DNA polymerase, to denature and copy the target DNA segment. PCR is now widely used in fields like forensics, genetics, medicine, and archaeology due to its ability to amplify trace amounts of DNA.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) allows for targeted amplification of specific DNA sequences. PCR works by repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to denature the double strand into single strands and allow primers to anneal and new strands to extend. This process can generate billions of copies of the target sequence. Key components of PCR include DNA template, primers, Taq polymerase, nucleotides, and repeated thermal cycling. PCR has many applications in research and forensic analysis by enabling amplification of rare DNA sequences.
PCR is a technique used to amplify a specific DNA sequence. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to denature and separate the DNA strands, followed by primer annealing and polymerase extension. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence. PCR requires a DNA template, DNA polymerase, primers, nucleotides, and repeated cycling between high and low temperatures. It has applications in research, forensics, medicine and molecular biology.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a common technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA, producing millions of copies. It uses the enzyme Taq polymerase to synthesize new DNA strands from existing DNA templates. The process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to denature and separate the DNA strands, allow primers to anneal, and extend new strands. This exponential process results in billions of copies of the target DNA region that can then be analyzed using gel electrophoresis or other techniques. PCR has many applications in research, forensics, genetic testing, and disease diagnosis.
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA through repeated cycles of heating and cooling. During each cycle, the double-stranded DNA is denatured into single strands, primers anneal to the target sequence, and DNA polymerase extends the primers to replicate the DNA. This process is repeated, doubling the amount of target DNA in each cycle. PCR uses the enzyme Taq polymerase, which is heat-stable and allows for replication at high temperatures. After many cycles, PCR can generate millions of copies of the target DNA sequence.
PCR allows for targeted amplification of specific DNA fragments. It involves repeated cycles of DNA denaturation by heating and cooling, primer annealing, and extension of the DNA strand by a DNA polymerase. Key steps include separation of double stranded DNA at 95°C, annealing of primers at 40-65°C, and extension of the DNA chain by DNA polymerase at 72°C. PCR amplifies the target DNA sequence up to 100,000-fold, enabling detection of rare DNA sequences. It has largely replaced other methods for DNA analysis and molecular cloning due to its specificity, sensitivity, speed, and ability to quantitatively analyze DNA.
Polymerase chain reaction (abbreviated PCR) is a laboratory technique for rapidly producing (amplifying) millions to billions of copies of a specific segment of DNA, which can then be studied in greater detail.
PCR presentation
Consists of the main parts of PCR , type of PCR including the most advanced and most efficient.
It also includes history of PCR.
PCR is a machine used to make multiple copies of gene, while gene is a part of DNA. it has 3 steps , initiaition, elongation, termination. which required different temperature for different step. these slides includes most information about PCR.
PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique used to amplify a single copy of DNA into many copies. It was developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis and has many applications in medical research. PCR works by using DNA polymerase to replicate a target piece of DNA through repeated heating and cooling cycles. Each cycle doubles the number of DNA copies. The process results in exponential amplification of the DNA target. PCR requires a DNA template, primers, DNA polymerase, nucleotides, buffer solution, and magnesium ions. It involves cycles of denaturation to separate DNA strands, annealing of primers to the template, and extension of new strands by the polymerase.
This document summarizes key aspects of DNA structure and function. It describes DNA as a double helix with complementary base pairing between adenine and thymine and cytosine and guanine. DNA stores genetic information, replicates semiconservatively using enzymes like DNA polymerase, and its sequence can be amplified via the polymerase chain reaction using thermal cycling. DNA replication proceeds from primer sites on the leading strand continuously but in fragments on the lagging strand.
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing developed by Frederick Sanger in 1977 that was widely used for 25 years. It involves making copies of a DNA region using DNA polymerase and chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides that are labeled with different colored dyes. This produces fragmented DNA of different lengths that can be separated by size to determine the DNA sequence. Sanger sequencing is useful for sequencing single genes or short sequences but is limited to read lengths of 300-1000 base pairs. It has been replaced by next generation sequencing methods for most applications.
The document provides information about a seminar on the application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in plant genome analysis. It discusses the basics of PCR including its history, the three main steps of PCR (denaturation, annealing and extension), and key enzymes involved such as DNA polymerase. It also summarizes some applications of PCR in genetic disease testing, crop improvement, and plant molecular biology research. PCR is a powerful technique for amplifying specific DNA sequences that has many uses in molecular biology and biotechnology.
The document provides information about a seminar on the application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in plant genome analysis. It discusses the basics of PCR including its history, the three main steps of PCR (denaturation, annealing and extension), and key enzymes involved such as DNA polymerase. It also summarizes some applications of PCR in genetic disease testing, crop improvement, and plant molecular biology research. PCR is a powerful technique for amplifying specific DNA sequences that has many uses in molecular biology and biotechnology.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify small amounts of DNA sequences. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to denature and replicate the target DNA. Each cycle doubles the amount of target DNA, exponentially increasing its quantity for analysis. PCR uses primers, DNA polymerase, and dNTPs to selectively amplify the target DNA sequence. It has revolutionized molecular biology and is widely used for DNA cloning, detection of genetic diseases and mutations, forensic analysis, and more.
PCR allows for the amplification of small amounts of DNA, generating millions of copies. It involves three steps - denaturation of the DNA template, annealing of primers, and extension of the primers by DNA polymerase. Repeating this process results in exponential growth in the number of DNA copies. DNA sequencing, such as the Sanger method, is used to determine the exact order of nucleotides in a DNA fragment and can be used to map genomes and detect genetic variations.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA through repeated cycles of heating and cooling. PCR uses DNA polymerase to replicate the target DNA region between primer sequences. The reaction involves initial denaturation of the DNA followed by repeated cycles of denaturation, annealing of primers, and extension of the DNA strand. This process exponentially amplifies the target DNA sequence, allowing millions of copies to be generated from a single DNA or RNA template.
PCR is a technique used to amplify a specific DNA sequence. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to separate and copy the DNA strands. Key components of PCR include primers, DNA polymerase, and dNTPs. Variations of PCR allow for applications such as detecting gene expression, sequencing DNA, and quantifying DNA. Limitations include errors during amplification and potential contamination issues.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique developed by Kerry Mullis in 1984 that uses thermal cycling to amplify a specific DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating millions of copies of the target DNA segment. It involves repeated cycles of separating DNA strands through heating, annealing primers to the strands through cooling, and extending the primers with a thermostable DNA polymerase through heating. This allows for rapid and efficient amplification of targeted DNA regions.
PCR is a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA. It works by repeatedly heating and cooling a DNA sample to make billions of copies of the target sequence. The DNA polymerase used is Taq polymerase, isolated from a heat-tolerant bacterium, which allows the high temperatures needed to separate the DNA strands during each PCR cycle. Primers are used to determine the region to be amplified by binding to the edges of the target sequence on opposite strands.
Gene cloning and polymerase chain reaction Abhay jha
In these you are able to know about the gene cloning basic steps and Polymerase chain reaction process also there is an brief description about the ideal property shown by vectors which are lambda and M13 phases and there are lots of things in these slides
The document discusses polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA. It was invented in 1983 by Kary Mullis, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1993. PCR works by repeating cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to separate the double helix, followed by use of DNA polymerase to make copies of the targeted region. This process can generate millions of copies of the targeted DNA sequence. The document outlines the components and steps of PCR, including primers, DNA polymerase, and thermal cycling. It discusses some applications of PCR such as detecting low-abundance DNA sequences, forensic analysis, and prenatal diagnosis.
The document summarizes polymerase chain reaction (PCR), including its history, principles, types, and applications. It describes how PCR was invented in 1983 by Kary Mullis, allowing for the amplification of specific DNA sequences. The basic steps of PCR involve denaturation of DNA, annealing of primers, and extension of new strands by DNA polymerase. Various types of PCR are discussed, such as real-time PCR, reverse transcriptase PCR, and nested PCR. The document explains that PCR has many applications, including diagnosis of infectious diseases and detection of genetic variations.
The document discusses various molecular cytogenetics techniques including polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). It provides details on the principles, techniques, and applications of PCR and RT-PCR. PCR is described as a technique that amplifies specific DNA regions, allowing minute quantities to be analyzed. Key steps involve DNA denaturation, primer annealing, and fragment extension. RT-PCR involves first converting RNA to cDNA then amplifying a specific region. Both techniques have numerous diagnostic and research applications.
قياس تركيز الدنا من مصادر مختلفة بواسطة ىشىخيقخحث.pptxraghad ibrahim
The document provides information about the Quawell Q3000 Nanodrop spectrophotometer. It describes the basic operation of the device, including how to take blank and sample measurements. Key features are its ability to accurately measure nucleic acid and protein concentration without using cuvettes. Maintenance involves regularly cleaning the measurement surfaces to prevent residue buildup. Absorbance is calculated by comparing the light intensity of a sample to that of a blank reference reading stored in memory.
This document summarizes a study on hepatitis virus types B and C among blood donors in Diyala Province, Iraq in 2015. The study tested 21430 blood donors and found that 0.5% of male donors and 0.04% of female donors were infected with hepatitis B, while 0.05% of male donors and 0.07% of female donors were infected with hepatitis C. Infection rates were highest among donors aged 36-45. Urban areas had lower infection rates than rural areas. The study concludes vaccination against hepatitis B and C should be considered in Iraq given high infection rates.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a common technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA, producing millions of copies. It uses the enzyme Taq polymerase to synthesize new DNA strands from existing DNA templates. The process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to denature and separate the DNA strands, allow primers to anneal, and extend new strands. This exponential process results in billions of copies of the target DNA region that can then be analyzed using gel electrophoresis or other techniques. PCR has many applications in research, forensics, genetic testing, and disease diagnosis.
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA through repeated cycles of heating and cooling. During each cycle, the double-stranded DNA is denatured into single strands, primers anneal to the target sequence, and DNA polymerase extends the primers to replicate the DNA. This process is repeated, doubling the amount of target DNA in each cycle. PCR uses the enzyme Taq polymerase, which is heat-stable and allows for replication at high temperatures. After many cycles, PCR can generate millions of copies of the target DNA sequence.
PCR allows for targeted amplification of specific DNA fragments. It involves repeated cycles of DNA denaturation by heating and cooling, primer annealing, and extension of the DNA strand by a DNA polymerase. Key steps include separation of double stranded DNA at 95°C, annealing of primers at 40-65°C, and extension of the DNA chain by DNA polymerase at 72°C. PCR amplifies the target DNA sequence up to 100,000-fold, enabling detection of rare DNA sequences. It has largely replaced other methods for DNA analysis and molecular cloning due to its specificity, sensitivity, speed, and ability to quantitatively analyze DNA.
Polymerase chain reaction (abbreviated PCR) is a laboratory technique for rapidly producing (amplifying) millions to billions of copies of a specific segment of DNA, which can then be studied in greater detail.
PCR presentation
Consists of the main parts of PCR , type of PCR including the most advanced and most efficient.
It also includes history of PCR.
PCR is a machine used to make multiple copies of gene, while gene is a part of DNA. it has 3 steps , initiaition, elongation, termination. which required different temperature for different step. these slides includes most information about PCR.
PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique used to amplify a single copy of DNA into many copies. It was developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis and has many applications in medical research. PCR works by using DNA polymerase to replicate a target piece of DNA through repeated heating and cooling cycles. Each cycle doubles the number of DNA copies. The process results in exponential amplification of the DNA target. PCR requires a DNA template, primers, DNA polymerase, nucleotides, buffer solution, and magnesium ions. It involves cycles of denaturation to separate DNA strands, annealing of primers to the template, and extension of new strands by the polymerase.
This document summarizes key aspects of DNA structure and function. It describes DNA as a double helix with complementary base pairing between adenine and thymine and cytosine and guanine. DNA stores genetic information, replicates semiconservatively using enzymes like DNA polymerase, and its sequence can be amplified via the polymerase chain reaction using thermal cycling. DNA replication proceeds from primer sites on the leading strand continuously but in fragments on the lagging strand.
Sanger sequencing is a method of DNA sequencing developed by Frederick Sanger in 1977 that was widely used for 25 years. It involves making copies of a DNA region using DNA polymerase and chain-terminating dideoxynucleotides that are labeled with different colored dyes. This produces fragmented DNA of different lengths that can be separated by size to determine the DNA sequence. Sanger sequencing is useful for sequencing single genes or short sequences but is limited to read lengths of 300-1000 base pairs. It has been replaced by next generation sequencing methods for most applications.
The document provides information about a seminar on the application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in plant genome analysis. It discusses the basics of PCR including its history, the three main steps of PCR (denaturation, annealing and extension), and key enzymes involved such as DNA polymerase. It also summarizes some applications of PCR in genetic disease testing, crop improvement, and plant molecular biology research. PCR is a powerful technique for amplifying specific DNA sequences that has many uses in molecular biology and biotechnology.
The document provides information about a seminar on the application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in plant genome analysis. It discusses the basics of PCR including its history, the three main steps of PCR (denaturation, annealing and extension), and key enzymes involved such as DNA polymerase. It also summarizes some applications of PCR in genetic disease testing, crop improvement, and plant molecular biology research. PCR is a powerful technique for amplifying specific DNA sequences that has many uses in molecular biology and biotechnology.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify small amounts of DNA sequences. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to denature and replicate the target DNA. Each cycle doubles the amount of target DNA, exponentially increasing its quantity for analysis. PCR uses primers, DNA polymerase, and dNTPs to selectively amplify the target DNA sequence. It has revolutionized molecular biology and is widely used for DNA cloning, detection of genetic diseases and mutations, forensic analysis, and more.
PCR allows for the amplification of small amounts of DNA, generating millions of copies. It involves three steps - denaturation of the DNA template, annealing of primers, and extension of the primers by DNA polymerase. Repeating this process results in exponential growth in the number of DNA copies. DNA sequencing, such as the Sanger method, is used to determine the exact order of nucleotides in a DNA fragment and can be used to map genomes and detect genetic variations.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify a specific region of DNA through repeated cycles of heating and cooling. PCR uses DNA polymerase to replicate the target DNA region between primer sequences. The reaction involves initial denaturation of the DNA followed by repeated cycles of denaturation, annealing of primers, and extension of the DNA strand. This process exponentially amplifies the target DNA sequence, allowing millions of copies to be generated from a single DNA or RNA template.
PCR is a technique used to amplify a specific DNA sequence. It involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to separate and copy the DNA strands. Key components of PCR include primers, DNA polymerase, and dNTPs. Variations of PCR allow for applications such as detecting gene expression, sequencing DNA, and quantifying DNA. Limitations include errors during amplification and potential contamination issues.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique developed by Kerry Mullis in 1984 that uses thermal cycling to amplify a specific DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating millions of copies of the target DNA segment. It involves repeated cycles of separating DNA strands through heating, annealing primers to the strands through cooling, and extending the primers with a thermostable DNA polymerase through heating. This allows for rapid and efficient amplification of targeted DNA regions.
PCR is a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA. It works by repeatedly heating and cooling a DNA sample to make billions of copies of the target sequence. The DNA polymerase used is Taq polymerase, isolated from a heat-tolerant bacterium, which allows the high temperatures needed to separate the DNA strands during each PCR cycle. Primers are used to determine the region to be amplified by binding to the edges of the target sequence on opposite strands.
Gene cloning and polymerase chain reaction Abhay jha
In these you are able to know about the gene cloning basic steps and Polymerase chain reaction process also there is an brief description about the ideal property shown by vectors which are lambda and M13 phases and there are lots of things in these slides
The document discusses polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a laboratory technique used to amplify a specific segment of DNA. It was invented in 1983 by Kary Mullis, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1993. PCR works by repeating cycles of heating and cooling of the DNA sample to separate the double helix, followed by use of DNA polymerase to make copies of the targeted region. This process can generate millions of copies of the targeted DNA sequence. The document outlines the components and steps of PCR, including primers, DNA polymerase, and thermal cycling. It discusses some applications of PCR such as detecting low-abundance DNA sequences, forensic analysis, and prenatal diagnosis.
The document summarizes polymerase chain reaction (PCR), including its history, principles, types, and applications. It describes how PCR was invented in 1983 by Kary Mullis, allowing for the amplification of specific DNA sequences. The basic steps of PCR involve denaturation of DNA, annealing of primers, and extension of new strands by DNA polymerase. Various types of PCR are discussed, such as real-time PCR, reverse transcriptase PCR, and nested PCR. The document explains that PCR has many applications, including diagnosis of infectious diseases and detection of genetic variations.
The document discusses various molecular cytogenetics techniques including polymerase chain reaction (PCR), reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR), and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). It provides details on the principles, techniques, and applications of PCR and RT-PCR. PCR is described as a technique that amplifies specific DNA regions, allowing minute quantities to be analyzed. Key steps involve DNA denaturation, primer annealing, and fragment extension. RT-PCR involves first converting RNA to cDNA then amplifying a specific region. Both techniques have numerous diagnostic and research applications.
قياس تركيز الدنا من مصادر مختلفة بواسطة ىشىخيقخحث.pptxraghad ibrahim
The document provides information about the Quawell Q3000 Nanodrop spectrophotometer. It describes the basic operation of the device, including how to take blank and sample measurements. Key features are its ability to accurately measure nucleic acid and protein concentration without using cuvettes. Maintenance involves regularly cleaning the measurement surfaces to prevent residue buildup. Absorbance is calculated by comparing the light intensity of a sample to that of a blank reference reading stored in memory.
This document summarizes a study on hepatitis virus types B and C among blood donors in Diyala Province, Iraq in 2015. The study tested 21430 blood donors and found that 0.5% of male donors and 0.04% of female donors were infected with hepatitis B, while 0.05% of male donors and 0.07% of female donors were infected with hepatitis C. Infection rates were highest among donors aged 36-45. Urban areas had lower infection rates than rural areas. The study concludes vaccination against hepatitis B and C should be considered in Iraq given high infection rates.
Viruses are a leading cause of foodborne illness. They can contaminate food and water and be transferred from people to food or surfaces. While viruses cannot grow on food, they can grow inside a person's intestines once ingested. Hepatitis A and Norovirus are two major foodborne illnesses caused by viruses. They are commonly associated with ready-to-eat foods and shellfish from contaminated water. Prevention focuses on handwashing and keeping infected employees out of food operations.
DNA can form loops and coils called supercoils. There are two types of supercoiling - positive and negative. Positive supercoiling occurs when DNA is coiled tightly in a right-handed direction, while negative supercoiling occurs when DNA is coiled in a left-handed direction. The degree of supercoiling is represented by linking number, twist, and writhe. Enzymes called DNA topoisomerases regulate supercoiling by cutting and rejoining DNA strands to reduce tension. There are two classes of topoisomerases - Class I cuts one strand while Class II cuts both strands.
Agglutination tests detect antibodies in serum by their ability to cause antigens to clump together (agglutinate). Examples include slide, tube, and passive agglutination tests. The hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test detects antibodies that block viral hemagglutination, i.e. the clumping of red blood cells by viral antigens. In the HI test, serum is serially diluted and tested for its ability to inhibit hemagglutination by a standardized amount of viral antigen. The antibody titer is the highest serum dilution that still inhibits hemagglutination.
The document discusses monkeypox, including:
1) It was first identified in monkeys in 1958 and later in humans in 1970. Experts are considering renaming it.
2) It is a double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the orthopoxvirus genus. There are two clades - Central African and West African.
3) Natural hosts include various squirrel species, Gambian pouched rats, dormice and non-human primates. Further studies are needed to identify the exact reservoir.
The document discusses how certain viruses and bacteria can lead to and stimulate cancer in humans. It provides details on specific infections like HPV, HBV, HIV, EBV, and H. pylori bacteria that are known risk factors for cancers like cervical cancer, liver cancer, and stomach cancer. The infections can increase cancer risk through direct effects on genes, long-term inflammation, or by weakening the immune system. Vaccines exist for some viruses to help prevent associated cancers.
Enzymes are protein catalysts produced by living cells that accelerate chemical reactions. They are highly specific and efficient even in mild conditions. Enzymes differ from regular catalysts in that they are biological macromolecules that can be damaged by reactions. The enzyme classification system divides enzymes into seven main classes based on the type of reaction they catalyze, such as oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, and translocases. Enzymes have properties including colloidal nature, high catalytic effectiveness, and specificity for certain substrates or reactions.
Monkeypox virus is an orthopoxvirus that causes a disease with symptoms similar to smallpox in humans and other primates. It primarily occurs in Central and West Africa in proximity to tropical rainforests. There are two distinct genetic clades - the Central African (Congo Basin) clade which historically causes more severe disease, and the West African clade. Various species of rodents and non-human primates serve as natural hosts. While its natural history is still uncertain, monkeypox was first identified in humans in 1970 in the Democratic Republic of Congo and has since been reported in several other Central and West African countries.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
Pride Month Slides 2024 David Douglas School District
PCR.ppt
1. Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR)
• PCR is a means to amplify a particular piece of DNA
• Amplify= making numerous copies of a segment of
DNA
• PCR can make billions of copies of a target sequence
of DNA in a few hours
• PCR was invented in the 1984 as a way to make
numerous copies of DNA fragments in the laboratory
• Its applications are vast and PCR is now an integral part
of Molecular Biology
2. DNA Replication vs. PCR
• PCR is a laboratory version of DNA
Replication in cells
• The laboratory version is commonly called “in vitro”
since it occurs in a test tube while “in vivo” signifies
occurring in a living cell.
3. DNA Replication in Cells (in vivo)
• DNA replication is the copying
of DNA
• It typically takes a cell just a
few hours to copy all of its
DNA
• DNA replication is semi-
conservative (i.e. one strand of
the DNA is used as the
template for the growth of a
new DNA strand)
• This process occurs with very
few errors (on average there is
one error per 1 billion
nucleotides copied)
• More than a dozen enzymes
and proteins participate in DNA
replication
4. Key enzymes involved in DNA
Replication
• DNA Polymerase
• DNA Ligase
• Primase
• Helicase
• Topoisomerase
• Single strand binding protein
5. DNA Replication enzymes:
DNA Polyerase
• catalyzes the elongation of DNA by adding
nucleoside triphosphates to the 3’ end of the
growing strand
• A nucleotide triphosphate is a 1 sugar + 1 base + 3 phosphates
• When a nucleoside triphosphate joins the DNA strand, two
phosphates are removed.
• DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to 3’
end of growing strand
6. Complementary Base-Pairing in DNA
• DNA is a double helix, made up of nucleotides, with a
sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside of the helix.
• Note: a nucleotide is a sugar + phosphate + nitrogenous base
• The two strands of DNA are held together by pairs of nitrogenous
bases that are attached to each other via hydrogen bonds.
• The nitrogenous base adenine will only pair with thymine
• The nitrogenous base guanine will only pair with cytosine
• During replication, once the DNA strands are separated, DNA
polymerase uses each strand as a template to synthesize new
strands of DNA with the precise, complementary order of
nucleotides.
7. DNA Replication enzymes:
DNA Ligase
• The two strands of DNA in a double helix are
antiparallel (i.e. they are oriented in opposite directions
with one strand oriented from 5’ to 3’ and the other
strand oriented from 3’ to 5’
• 5’ and 3’ refer to the numbers assigned to the carbons in the
5 carbon sugar
• Given the antiparallel nature of DNA and the fact that
DNA ploymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3’
end, one strand (referred to as the leading strand) of
DNA is synthesized continuously and the other strand
(referred to as the lagging strand) in synthesized in
fragments (called Okazaki fragments) that are joined
together by DNA ligase.
8. DNA Replication enzymes: Primase
• DNA Polymerase cannot initiate the synthesis of
DNA
• Remember that DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to
3’ end of an already existing strand of DNA
• In humans, primase is the enzyme that can
start an RNA chain from scratch and it creates a
primer (a short stretch RNA with an available
3’ end) that DNA polymerase can add
nucleotides to during replication.
Note that the RNA primer is subsequently replaced with DNA
9. DNA Replication enzymes:
Helicase, Topoisomerase and Single-strand binding protein
• Helicase untwists the two parallel DNA strands
• Topoisomerase relieves the stress of this
twisting
• Single-strand binding protein binds to and
stabilizes the unpaired DNA strands
10. PCR: the in vitro version of DNA Replication
The following components are needed to perform
PCR in the laboratory:
1) DNA (your DNA of interest that contains the target
sequence you wish to copy)
2) A heat-stable DNA Polymerase (like Taq Polymerase)
3) All four nucleotide triphosphates
4) Buffers
5) Two short, single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as
primers
6) Thin walled tubes
7) Thermal cycler (a device that can change temperatures
dramatically in a very short period of time)
11. PCR
The DNA, DNA
polymerase, buffer,
nucleoside triphosphates,
and primers are placed in
a thin-walled tube and
then these tubes are
placed in the PCR
thermal cycler
PCR Thermocycler
12. The three main steps of PCR
• The basis of PCR is temperature changes and the effect that these
temperature changes have on the DNA.
• In a PCR reaction, the following series of steps is repeated 20-40 times
(note: 25 cycles usually takes about 2 hours and amplifies the DNA
fragment of interest 100,000 fold)
Step 1: Denature DNA
At 95C, the DNA is denatured (i.e. the two strands are separated)
Step 2: Primers Anneal
At 40C- 65C, the primers anneal (or bind to) their complementary
sequences on the single strands of DNA
Step 3: DNA polymerase Extends the DNA chain
At 72C, DNA Polymerase extends the DNA chain by adding nucleotides to
the 3’ ends of the primers.
13. Heat-stable DNA Polymerase
• Given that PCR involves very high temperatures,
it is imperative that a heat-stable DNA
polymerase be used in the reaction.
• Most DNA polymerases would denature (and thus not
function properly) at the high temperatures of PCR.
• Taq DNA polymerase was purified from the hot
springs bacterium Thermus aquaticus in 1976
• Taq has maximal enzymatic activity at 75 C to
80 C, and substantially reduced activities at
lower temperatures.
15. Step 2 Annealing or Primers Binding
Primers bind to the complimentary sequence on the
target DNA. Primers are chosen such that one is
complimentary to the one strand at one end of the
target sequence and that the other is complimentary
to the other strand at the other end of the target
sequence.
Forward Primer
Reverse Primer
16. Step 3 Extension or Primer Extension
DNA polymerase catalyzes the extension of the
strand in the 5-3 direction, starting at the
primers, attaching the appropriate nucleotide
(A-T, C-G)
extension
extension
17. • The next cycle will begin by denaturing
the new DNA strands formed in the
previous cycle
18. The Size of the DNA Fragment Produced
in PCR is Dependent on the Primers
• The PCR reaction will amplify the DNA section between the two
primers.
• If the DNA sequence is known, primers can be developed to amplify
any piece of an organism’s DNA.
Forward primer
Reverse primer
Size of fragment that is amplified
19. The DNA of interest is amplified by
a power of 2 for each PCR cycle
For example, if you subject your DNA of interest to 5 cycles of
PCR, you will end up with 25 (or 64) copies of DNA.
Similarly, if you subject your DNA of interest to 40 cycles of
PCR, you will end up with 240 (or ) copies of DNA!
20. PCR has become a very powerful
tool in molecular biology
• One can start with a single sperm cell or stand of
hair and amplify the DNA sufficiently to allow for
DNA analysis and a distinctive band on an
agarose gel.
• One can amplify fragments of interest in an
organism’s DNA by choosing the right primers.
• One can use the selectivity of the primers to
identify the likelihood of an individual carrying a
particular allele of a gene.
21. More about Primers
• PCR primers are short, single stranded DNA
molecules (15-40 bp)
• They are manufactured commercially and can
be ordered to match any DNA sequence
• Primers are sequence specific, they will bind to a
particular sequence in a genome
• As you design primers with a longer length (15
→ 40 bp), the primers become more selective.
• DNA polymerase requires primers to initiate
replication
22. Selectivity of Primers
• Primers bind to their complementary sequence
on the target DNA
– A primer composed of only 3 letter, ACC, for example,
would be very likely to encounter its complement in a
genome.
– As the size of the primer is increased, the likelihood
of, for example, a primer sequence of 35 base letters
repeatedly encountering a perfect complementary
section on the target DNA become remote.
23. A Review of Probability
A COIN THROW
The probability of a heads (H) or a tails (T) is always 0.5 for every
throw. What is the probability of getting this combination of tails in a
row?
Event Probability
Tails 0.5 = 0.5
T,T 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25
T,T,T 0.5 x0.5 x 0.5 = 0.125
T,T,T,T,T (0.5)5 = 0.03125
T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T (0.5)11 = 0.0004883
T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T,T (0.5)16 =0.00001526
So it become increasing unlikely that one will get 16 tails in a row (1 chance in
65536 throws). In this same way, as the primer increases in size the chances of
a match other than the one intended for is highly unlikely.
24. Probability in Genetics
• There are 4 bases in the DNA molecule A,C,G,T
• The probability of encountering any of these bases in the code is 0.25 (1/4)
• So let us look at the probability of encountering a particular sequence of bases
Event Probability
A 0.25 = 0.25
A,T 0.25 x 0.25 = 0.0625
A,T,A 0.25 x0.25 x 0.25 = 0.015625
A,T,A,G,G (0.25)5 = 0.0009765
A,T,A,G,G,T,T,T,A,A,C (0.25)11 = 0.000002384
A,T,A,G,G,T,T,T,A,A,C,C,T,G,G,T (0.25)16 =0.0000000002384
So it become increasing unlikely that one will get 16 bases in this particular
sequence (1 chance in 4.3 billion). In this same way, one can see that as the
primer increases in size, the chances of a match other than the one intended
for is highly unlikely.
25. PCR and Disease
• Primers can be created that will only bind and amplify
certain alleles of genes or mutations of genes
• This is the basis of genetic counseling and PCR is used as
part of the diagnostic tests for genetic diseases.
• Some diseases that can be diagnosed with the help of
PCR:
• Huntington's disease
• cystic fibrosis
• Human immunodeficiency virus
26. Huntington’s Disease (HD)
• HD is a genetic disorder characterized by abnormal body
movements and reduced mental abilities
• HD is caused by a mutation in the Huntingtin (HD) gene
• In individuals with HD, the HD gene is “expanded”
– In non-HD individuals, the HD gene has a pattern called trinucleotide
repeats with “CAG” occurring in repetition less than 30 times.
– IN HD individuals, the “CAG” trinucleotide repeat occurs more that 36
times in the HD gene
• PCR can be performed on an individual’s DNA to determine whether
the individual has HD.
– The DNA is amplified via PCR and sequenced (a technique by which
the exact nucleotide sequence is determined) and the number of
trinucleotide repeats is then counted.
27. Cystic Fibrosis (CF)
• CF is a genetic disease characterized by severe breathing
difficulties and a predisposition to infections.
• CF is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane
conductance regulator (CTFR) gene.
• In non-CF individuals, the CTFR gene codes for a protein that is a
chloride ion channel and is involved in the production of sweat,
digestive juices and mucus.
• In CF individuals, mutations in the CTFR gene lead to thick mucous
secretions in the lungs and subsequent persistent bacterial
infections.
• The presence of CTFR mutations in a individual can be detected by
performing PCR and sequencing on that individual’s DNA.
28. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
• HIV is a retrovirus that attacks the immune system.
• HIV tests rely on PCR with primers that will only amplify
a section of the viral DNA found in an infected
individual’s bodily fluids.
Therefore if there is a PCR product, the person is likely to be
HIV positive. If there is no PCR product the person is likely to
be HIV negative.
• Protein detection based tests are available as well but all US blood
is tested by PCR.
29. PCR and Forensic Science
• Forensic science is the application of a broad spectrum of sciences
to answer questions of interest to the legal system. This may be in
relation to a crime or to a civil action.
• It is often of interest in forensic science to identify individuals
genetically. In these cases, one is interested in looking at variable
regions of the genome as opposed to highly-conserved genes.
• PCR can be used to amplify highly variable regions of the human
genome. These regions contain runs of short, repeated sequences
(known as variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) sequences) .
The number of repeats can vary from 4-40 in different individuals.
• Primers are chosen that will amplify these repeated areas and the
genomic fragments generated give us a unique “genetic fingerprint”
that can be used to identify an individual.
30. PCR Applications to Forensic Science
• Paternity suits -Argentina’s Mothers of the plaza
and their search for abducted grandchildren
• Identifying badly decomposed bodies or when only
body fragments are found - World trade center,
Bosnian , Iraq & Rwandan mass graves
31. Some cool PCR links
• The Dolan DNA Learning Center:
Link to Dolan DNA Learning Center's PCR Animation
This site provides a nice step by step guide to how DNA is copied in
PCR reaction.
• DNA Interactive:
Link to DNAi
This site is FULL of cool stuff! Two 3-D animation videos relevant to
this Powerpoint presentation are:
– The DNA Replication animation (to get to this, click on the above
link, then click on “code”, then click on “copying the code”, then click on
“putting it together”, and finally click on “replication”).
– The PCR animation (to get to this, click on the above link, then click
on “manipulation”, then click on “techniques”, the click on “amplifying”
and then finally click on “PCR animation”).