This document provides an overview of consequence modelling in the hazard assessment software package Phast. It discusses the key steps in consequence modelling: discharge calculations, dispersion calculations, and toxic or flammable effect calculations. It then summarizes the verification and validation process for Phast's consequence models, including verifying the code solves the mathematical models correctly, validating against experimental data, and sensitivity analysis. Verification and validation is discussed for the discharge, dispersion, and flammable effects models in Phast.
The document provides an overview of advanced modelling options in ANSYS FLUENT, including multiphase flows, reacting flows, and modelling moving parts. It discusses various multiphase models (discrete phase model, Eulerian model, mixture model, VOF model). It also covers reacting flow modelling approaches, pollutant formation models, discrete phase reactions, and surface reactions. Examples of applications are provided for each type of modelling capability.
This document is a project report on piping stress analysis submitted by three students - Adwait A. Joshi, Robin T. Cherian, and Girish R. Rao - to the University of Mumbai in partial fulfillment of their Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering degree requirements. It was completed under the guidance of their internal project guide Prof. Ms. R. R. Easow at Sardar Patel College of Engineering, with external guidance from Prof. A. S. Moharir of IIT Bombay's Piping Engineering Cell. The report introduces piping stress analysis, outlines the objectives and scope of analyzing stresses in piping systems, and describes how loads are classified and their effects on piping stresses
04-LRFD Concept (Steel Structural Design & Prof. Shehab Mourad)Hossam Shafiq II
The document discusses load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methods for structural design. It provides information on:
1) Types of loads that must be considered in design like dead, live, and environmental loads. Load factors are used to increase calculated loads to account for uncertainties.
2) Resistance factors are used to reduce nominal member strength to account for variability in material strength and dimensions.
3) The LRFD method aims for a 99.7% reliability target where factored resistance must exceed factored loads based on load combinations outlined in codes.
This document discusses different types of storage tanks used in refineries and chemical plants. It describes atmospheric storage tanks, which operate at approximately atmospheric pressure, including fixed-roof tanks, floating-roof tanks, and fixed-roof tanks with an internal floating roof. Low-temperature and low-pressure storage tanks are also discussed. Standards for storage tank design include API-650 for atmospheric tanks and API-620 for low-pressure tanks. Floating roof tanks are described as minimizing vapor losses by maintaining a small vapor space or eliminating it completely.
This document discusses oblique shock waves that occur in compressible fluid flows. It defines oblique shock waves as inclined shock waves that form when supersonic flow encounters a corner, compressing and deflecting the flow. The document outlines the properties of oblique shock waves, including decreases in Mach number, total pressure, and energy compared to normal shock waves. Equations governing oblique shock wave behavior relate pre- and post-shock Mach numbers to shock angle and flow properties. Applications include reducing velocity in supersonic engine inlets through a series of oblique shock waves with lower energy losses than normal shock waves.
The document discusses ASME's Nuclear Early Career Technical Seminar and provides information about ASME's Nuclear Codes and Standards programs. It describes ASME's organization, vision, mission and consensus process for developing nuclear codes and standards. The document also discusses initiatives to address new reactor technologies and expand international collaboration. Finally, it describes benefits of involvement in ASME's codes and standards work for both young engineers and their employers, and announces a new mentoring program for engineers.
This document provides information about Active Server Pages (ASP) and VBScript. ASP is a Microsoft technology for building dynamically generated web pages using server-side scripting. Initially released as an add-on for IIS, it allowed web pages to access functionality in DLLs using COM. ASP.NET has since superseded ASP. VBScript is a scripting language that can be used within ASP pages and is not case sensitive. Key concepts discussed include ASP architecture, the ASP model, developing ASP scripts, variables and data types in VBScript, and using procedures.
The document provides an overview of advanced modelling options in ANSYS FLUENT, including multiphase flows, reacting flows, and modelling moving parts. It discusses various multiphase models (discrete phase model, Eulerian model, mixture model, VOF model). It also covers reacting flow modelling approaches, pollutant formation models, discrete phase reactions, and surface reactions. Examples of applications are provided for each type of modelling capability.
This document is a project report on piping stress analysis submitted by three students - Adwait A. Joshi, Robin T. Cherian, and Girish R. Rao - to the University of Mumbai in partial fulfillment of their Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering degree requirements. It was completed under the guidance of their internal project guide Prof. Ms. R. R. Easow at Sardar Patel College of Engineering, with external guidance from Prof. A. S. Moharir of IIT Bombay's Piping Engineering Cell. The report introduces piping stress analysis, outlines the objectives and scope of analyzing stresses in piping systems, and describes how loads are classified and their effects on piping stresses
04-LRFD Concept (Steel Structural Design & Prof. Shehab Mourad)Hossam Shafiq II
The document discusses load and resistance factor design (LRFD) methods for structural design. It provides information on:
1) Types of loads that must be considered in design like dead, live, and environmental loads. Load factors are used to increase calculated loads to account for uncertainties.
2) Resistance factors are used to reduce nominal member strength to account for variability in material strength and dimensions.
3) The LRFD method aims for a 99.7% reliability target where factored resistance must exceed factored loads based on load combinations outlined in codes.
This document discusses different types of storage tanks used in refineries and chemical plants. It describes atmospheric storage tanks, which operate at approximately atmospheric pressure, including fixed-roof tanks, floating-roof tanks, and fixed-roof tanks with an internal floating roof. Low-temperature and low-pressure storage tanks are also discussed. Standards for storage tank design include API-650 for atmospheric tanks and API-620 for low-pressure tanks. Floating roof tanks are described as minimizing vapor losses by maintaining a small vapor space or eliminating it completely.
This document discusses oblique shock waves that occur in compressible fluid flows. It defines oblique shock waves as inclined shock waves that form when supersonic flow encounters a corner, compressing and deflecting the flow. The document outlines the properties of oblique shock waves, including decreases in Mach number, total pressure, and energy compared to normal shock waves. Equations governing oblique shock wave behavior relate pre- and post-shock Mach numbers to shock angle and flow properties. Applications include reducing velocity in supersonic engine inlets through a series of oblique shock waves with lower energy losses than normal shock waves.
The document discusses ASME's Nuclear Early Career Technical Seminar and provides information about ASME's Nuclear Codes and Standards programs. It describes ASME's organization, vision, mission and consensus process for developing nuclear codes and standards. The document also discusses initiatives to address new reactor technologies and expand international collaboration. Finally, it describes benefits of involvement in ASME's codes and standards work for both young engineers and their employers, and announces a new mentoring program for engineers.
This document provides information about Active Server Pages (ASP) and VBScript. ASP is a Microsoft technology for building dynamically generated web pages using server-side scripting. Initially released as an add-on for IIS, it allowed web pages to access functionality in DLLs using COM. ASP.NET has since superseded ASP. VBScript is a scripting language that can be used within ASP pages and is not case sensitive. Key concepts discussed include ASP architecture, the ASP model, developing ASP scripts, variables and data types in VBScript, and using procedures.
The document discusses the kinematic method for plastic analysis of structures. It begins by explaining the steps of the kinematic method: 1) draw a possible collapse pattern, 2) calculate the plastic moment (Mp) that produces that pattern, and 3) check if the pattern and Mp value result in an equilibrium bending moment diagram. It then provides examples of applying these steps to determine the plastic analysis of beams, frames, and other structural elements.
The document summarizes the key changes and new features in Version 4.40 of the CAESAR II pipe stress analysis software. Some of the main updates include revised piping codes, addition of the B31.11 code, expanded static load case options, automatic generation of hydrotest load cases, updates to the 3D graphics, and addition of new configuration options. The installation process for Version 4.40 is described, which includes running an installation driver from the included CD-ROM.
This document discusses mesh quality parameters and the penalty approach in finite element analysis. It defines key parameters that affect mesh quality such as skewness, aspect ratio, warp angle, and Jacobian. Values for tetrahedral meshing are also defined, including tetra collapse, volumetric skew, stretch, and distortion. The document explains that improving element quality manually or through automatic programs can enhance accuracy. It concludes with an overview of the penalty approach theory in finite element analysis.
This document provides standards for the design and construction of concrete foundations at Saudi Aramco. It outlines requirements for soils analysis, foundation stability, concrete specifications, and the use of precast foundations. The standards are intended to ensure foundations are adequately designed for their intended use based on accepted engineering practices and industry codes. The document provides mandatory rules for soil bearing pressures, reinforcement, construction methods, and addressing potential underground interferences.
Iso 10816 1-1995(e)-image_600_pdf_documentDaniel Rua
This document provides guidelines for evaluating machine vibration through measurements of non-rotating parts. It establishes procedures for vibration measurement and evaluation criteria. Measurements should be made at bearings, housings, and other structural parts to characterize overall machine vibration. Vibration magnitude and severity are defined, and measuring positions and directions are illustrated for different machine types. The guidelines aim to ensure reliable and safe long-term machine operation while minimizing effects on other equipment.
This document provides information about a course on compressible fluid flow. It outlines the course objectives of developing fundamental compressible flow concepts and solving engineering problems involving supersonic airbreathing engines and rocket nozzles. It details aspects of the course such as the optional textbook, exams being in English, grading criteria, assignments, bonuses and penalties, attendance policies, and advice for doing well in the course. The document emphasizes understanding concepts, following steps to solve problems, and not relying on intuition for compressible flow problems.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a numerical method used to analyze and solve fluid flow problems. CFD uses the mathematical equations that govern fluid motion and heat transfer to simulate the behavior of fluids. It provides a comprehensive examination of systems through modeling of velocity, pressure, temperature, and other properties without extensive physical testing. CFD has advantages of being relatively low cost, fast, and able to simulate real conditions. Limitations include accuracy depending on physical models and numerical errors from discretization. CFD is commonly used in engineering applications like aerodynamics, automotive, and electronics design.
This is in continuation to my previous post (walk through-piping).
Generally, when we talk about Pipe stress analysis basics, we tend to quickly jump to Failure theories, B31.3, Caesar II, Static & Dynamic, offshore /onshore, jacketed piping etc.
Walk through Pipe stress is to ease into piping stress world with its polite introduction to curious techies, without having hold on Forces/moments/displacement equations.
Pipe Stress Analysis Basics will be taken next.
regards
Ashish
Cfd fundamental study of flow past a circular cylinder with convective heat t...Sammy Jamar
This CFD project simulates flow past a heated circular cylinder confined between parallel plates using ANSYS Fluent. It studies the effects of Reynolds number on flow patterns, boundary layer separation angle, heat transfer via conduction and convection, and drag coefficient. Results are validated against experimental data and show increasing convection and better agreement with experiments at higher Reynolds numbers from 0.038 to 10,000. The relationship between Reynolds and Nusselt numbers is determined, indicating their proportional variation and the transition from conduction-dominant to convection-dominant heat transfer with increasing flow velocity.
This document summarizes key provisions related to steel structures in Section 6 of the specifications. It discusses how elements are proportioned based on their structural action like tension, compression, flexure, etc. It also discusses requirements for connections, splices, and specific structural types. Key points covered include material properties of steels, fatigue design considerations grouping details into categories, and commentary on orthotropic deck details.
This document provides design specifications and details for a pressure vessel including:
- Dimensions of 881⁄2" overall length, 251⁄2" diameter at the bottom, and 201⁄2" diameter at the top.
- Key features such as lifting lugs, a name plate, leg supports, and an earthing lug.
- Material specifications for the shell, head, nuts, bolts, gaskets, supports, flanges, and nozzles.
- Pressure and temperature design conditions of 150 PSIG and MDMT.
- A nozzle table listing 7 nozzles including their type, class, size, and projection.
Fluid Mechanic Lab - Reynold's Number ExperimentMuhammadSRaniYah
1. The document summarizes an experiment conducted by Muhammad Sulaimon Rasul to determine different types of fluid flow (laminar, transitional, turbulent) using Reynolds apparatus.
2. The experiment measured the volume of water and time taken to fill a graduated cylinder for different flow rates. This was used to calculate Reynolds number to identify flow type.
3. All results showed Reynolds numbers less than 2000, indicating laminar flow for all trials according to the theoretical boundaries between flow types.
The document provides an overview of the ASME B31.3 Process Piping Code. It discusses the code's philosophy, organization, history, scope, fluid service categories, and application. Key points include that B31.3 applies to process piping systems in chemical, petroleum, and other plants. It covers piping for various fluids and has specific requirements for Category M and high pressure fluid services. The code is organized into chapters that address design, materials, components, fabrication, inspection, and other topics.
This document provides an introduction and overview of piping design. It defines piping and piping systems, discusses international design standards like ASME B31.3, and covers key piping components such as pipes, fittings, flanges and valves. The document also outlines the stages of a piping design project from start to completion and summarizes important considerations like stress analysis, material selection and support spacing calculations.
This document outlines the contents of a training course on hot tapping requirements and simulation. The course contains 4 modules: 1) Piping systems, which covers pipes, flanges, fittings, and gaskets; 2) Welding processes, symbols, electrodes, and non-destructive testing; 3) Hot tapping requirements; and 4) Hot tapping simulation. Module 1 provides details on piping materials, sizes, standards, and components. Module 2 describes common welding techniques and introduces welding symbols. Module 3 focuses on hot tapping requirements, while Module 4 involves simulations of hot tapping procedures.
Modeling, Simulation and Analysis of Parachutes.Shivam Chaubey
Zeus Numerix Pvt. Ltd. is an engineering company that provides computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solutions. They analyzed parachute designs for the Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE) using CFD. The project involved modeling elliptical, conical, ringslot, and PTA-G2 parachute geometries in CAD software. Meshes were generated in ICEM CFD and simulations run in CFD Expert Lite to compute drag forces, coefficients, pressures, and velocities. Results were visualized in Paraview. The analysis aimed to help optimize parachute designs.
INSPECTION OF PRESSURE VESSELS TO ASME Section VIII Div. 1.pdfTeddy Setiady
The document discusses a seminar presentation on inspection of pressure vessels according to ASME Section VIII Division 1. The presentation outline covers what is authorized inspection, an overview of ASME codes, code stamps, inspection responsibilities of manufacturers and authorized inspectors, the scope and organization of ASME Section VIII, and inspection requirements of Section VIII Division 1.
Pressure Relief Valve Sizing for Single Phase FlowVikram Sharma
This presentation file provides a quick refresher to pressure relief valve sizing for single phase flow. The calculation guideline is as per API Std 520.
Setting up a crash simulation in LS-DynaAkshay Mistri
This document provides steps to set up a crash simulation in LS-Dyna of an aluminum rail crashing into a rigid wall. It describes importing the rail model, defining the wall, applying mass to one end of the rail, assigning material properties of aluminum to the rail, applying an initial velocity to the rail, setting the simulation time and output steps, defining a special node for high resolution output, and configuring the simulation to output force on the wall, material data and displacement of the special node. Running the simulation would show the crash results and special outputs in the LS-Dyna software.
This document compares the results of modeling toxic gas dispersion (hydrogen sulfide) using the CFD model PANACHE and the Gaussian plume model PHAST under different atmospheric conditions. The study found that PHAST consistently predicted higher concentrations than PANACHE due to not accounting for plant geometry and turbulence. Dispersion at stable conditions gave higher concentrations than neutral conditions. While PHAST is conservative, PANACHE more accurately models the plant scenario by considering geometry and turbulence. The maximum concentrations at 700m were below safety limits.
Consequence assessment methods for incidents from lngaob
This document summarizes methods for assessing consequences of incidents involving releases from liquefied natural gas carriers. It recommends using an orifice model to estimate release rates, Webber's methodology to model pool spreading accounting for frictional forces, and heat transfer theory to calculate heat flux to boiling pools. For fires, it recommends using a solid flame model. It also provides injury and damage criteria for assessing impacts to people and structures from thermal radiation. The document notes limitations in current models and calls for additional research, particularly spill tests, to improve accuracy.
The document discusses the kinematic method for plastic analysis of structures. It begins by explaining the steps of the kinematic method: 1) draw a possible collapse pattern, 2) calculate the plastic moment (Mp) that produces that pattern, and 3) check if the pattern and Mp value result in an equilibrium bending moment diagram. It then provides examples of applying these steps to determine the plastic analysis of beams, frames, and other structural elements.
The document summarizes the key changes and new features in Version 4.40 of the CAESAR II pipe stress analysis software. Some of the main updates include revised piping codes, addition of the B31.11 code, expanded static load case options, automatic generation of hydrotest load cases, updates to the 3D graphics, and addition of new configuration options. The installation process for Version 4.40 is described, which includes running an installation driver from the included CD-ROM.
This document discusses mesh quality parameters and the penalty approach in finite element analysis. It defines key parameters that affect mesh quality such as skewness, aspect ratio, warp angle, and Jacobian. Values for tetrahedral meshing are also defined, including tetra collapse, volumetric skew, stretch, and distortion. The document explains that improving element quality manually or through automatic programs can enhance accuracy. It concludes with an overview of the penalty approach theory in finite element analysis.
This document provides standards for the design and construction of concrete foundations at Saudi Aramco. It outlines requirements for soils analysis, foundation stability, concrete specifications, and the use of precast foundations. The standards are intended to ensure foundations are adequately designed for their intended use based on accepted engineering practices and industry codes. The document provides mandatory rules for soil bearing pressures, reinforcement, construction methods, and addressing potential underground interferences.
Iso 10816 1-1995(e)-image_600_pdf_documentDaniel Rua
This document provides guidelines for evaluating machine vibration through measurements of non-rotating parts. It establishes procedures for vibration measurement and evaluation criteria. Measurements should be made at bearings, housings, and other structural parts to characterize overall machine vibration. Vibration magnitude and severity are defined, and measuring positions and directions are illustrated for different machine types. The guidelines aim to ensure reliable and safe long-term machine operation while minimizing effects on other equipment.
This document provides information about a course on compressible fluid flow. It outlines the course objectives of developing fundamental compressible flow concepts and solving engineering problems involving supersonic airbreathing engines and rocket nozzles. It details aspects of the course such as the optional textbook, exams being in English, grading criteria, assignments, bonuses and penalties, attendance policies, and advice for doing well in the course. The document emphasizes understanding concepts, following steps to solve problems, and not relying on intuition for compressible flow problems.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a numerical method used to analyze and solve fluid flow problems. CFD uses the mathematical equations that govern fluid motion and heat transfer to simulate the behavior of fluids. It provides a comprehensive examination of systems through modeling of velocity, pressure, temperature, and other properties without extensive physical testing. CFD has advantages of being relatively low cost, fast, and able to simulate real conditions. Limitations include accuracy depending on physical models and numerical errors from discretization. CFD is commonly used in engineering applications like aerodynamics, automotive, and electronics design.
This is in continuation to my previous post (walk through-piping).
Generally, when we talk about Pipe stress analysis basics, we tend to quickly jump to Failure theories, B31.3, Caesar II, Static & Dynamic, offshore /onshore, jacketed piping etc.
Walk through Pipe stress is to ease into piping stress world with its polite introduction to curious techies, without having hold on Forces/moments/displacement equations.
Pipe Stress Analysis Basics will be taken next.
regards
Ashish
Cfd fundamental study of flow past a circular cylinder with convective heat t...Sammy Jamar
This CFD project simulates flow past a heated circular cylinder confined between parallel plates using ANSYS Fluent. It studies the effects of Reynolds number on flow patterns, boundary layer separation angle, heat transfer via conduction and convection, and drag coefficient. Results are validated against experimental data and show increasing convection and better agreement with experiments at higher Reynolds numbers from 0.038 to 10,000. The relationship between Reynolds and Nusselt numbers is determined, indicating their proportional variation and the transition from conduction-dominant to convection-dominant heat transfer with increasing flow velocity.
This document summarizes key provisions related to steel structures in Section 6 of the specifications. It discusses how elements are proportioned based on their structural action like tension, compression, flexure, etc. It also discusses requirements for connections, splices, and specific structural types. Key points covered include material properties of steels, fatigue design considerations grouping details into categories, and commentary on orthotropic deck details.
This document provides design specifications and details for a pressure vessel including:
- Dimensions of 881⁄2" overall length, 251⁄2" diameter at the bottom, and 201⁄2" diameter at the top.
- Key features such as lifting lugs, a name plate, leg supports, and an earthing lug.
- Material specifications for the shell, head, nuts, bolts, gaskets, supports, flanges, and nozzles.
- Pressure and temperature design conditions of 150 PSIG and MDMT.
- A nozzle table listing 7 nozzles including their type, class, size, and projection.
Fluid Mechanic Lab - Reynold's Number ExperimentMuhammadSRaniYah
1. The document summarizes an experiment conducted by Muhammad Sulaimon Rasul to determine different types of fluid flow (laminar, transitional, turbulent) using Reynolds apparatus.
2. The experiment measured the volume of water and time taken to fill a graduated cylinder for different flow rates. This was used to calculate Reynolds number to identify flow type.
3. All results showed Reynolds numbers less than 2000, indicating laminar flow for all trials according to the theoretical boundaries between flow types.
The document provides an overview of the ASME B31.3 Process Piping Code. It discusses the code's philosophy, organization, history, scope, fluid service categories, and application. Key points include that B31.3 applies to process piping systems in chemical, petroleum, and other plants. It covers piping for various fluids and has specific requirements for Category M and high pressure fluid services. The code is organized into chapters that address design, materials, components, fabrication, inspection, and other topics.
This document provides an introduction and overview of piping design. It defines piping and piping systems, discusses international design standards like ASME B31.3, and covers key piping components such as pipes, fittings, flanges and valves. The document also outlines the stages of a piping design project from start to completion and summarizes important considerations like stress analysis, material selection and support spacing calculations.
This document outlines the contents of a training course on hot tapping requirements and simulation. The course contains 4 modules: 1) Piping systems, which covers pipes, flanges, fittings, and gaskets; 2) Welding processes, symbols, electrodes, and non-destructive testing; 3) Hot tapping requirements; and 4) Hot tapping simulation. Module 1 provides details on piping materials, sizes, standards, and components. Module 2 describes common welding techniques and introduces welding symbols. Module 3 focuses on hot tapping requirements, while Module 4 involves simulations of hot tapping procedures.
Modeling, Simulation and Analysis of Parachutes.Shivam Chaubey
Zeus Numerix Pvt. Ltd. is an engineering company that provides computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solutions. They analyzed parachute designs for the Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE) using CFD. The project involved modeling elliptical, conical, ringslot, and PTA-G2 parachute geometries in CAD software. Meshes were generated in ICEM CFD and simulations run in CFD Expert Lite to compute drag forces, coefficients, pressures, and velocities. Results were visualized in Paraview. The analysis aimed to help optimize parachute designs.
INSPECTION OF PRESSURE VESSELS TO ASME Section VIII Div. 1.pdfTeddy Setiady
The document discusses a seminar presentation on inspection of pressure vessels according to ASME Section VIII Division 1. The presentation outline covers what is authorized inspection, an overview of ASME codes, code stamps, inspection responsibilities of manufacturers and authorized inspectors, the scope and organization of ASME Section VIII, and inspection requirements of Section VIII Division 1.
Pressure Relief Valve Sizing for Single Phase FlowVikram Sharma
This presentation file provides a quick refresher to pressure relief valve sizing for single phase flow. The calculation guideline is as per API Std 520.
Setting up a crash simulation in LS-DynaAkshay Mistri
This document provides steps to set up a crash simulation in LS-Dyna of an aluminum rail crashing into a rigid wall. It describes importing the rail model, defining the wall, applying mass to one end of the rail, assigning material properties of aluminum to the rail, applying an initial velocity to the rail, setting the simulation time and output steps, defining a special node for high resolution output, and configuring the simulation to output force on the wall, material data and displacement of the special node. Running the simulation would show the crash results and special outputs in the LS-Dyna software.
This document compares the results of modeling toxic gas dispersion (hydrogen sulfide) using the CFD model PANACHE and the Gaussian plume model PHAST under different atmospheric conditions. The study found that PHAST consistently predicted higher concentrations than PANACHE due to not accounting for plant geometry and turbulence. Dispersion at stable conditions gave higher concentrations than neutral conditions. While PHAST is conservative, PANACHE more accurately models the plant scenario by considering geometry and turbulence. The maximum concentrations at 700m were below safety limits.
Consequence assessment methods for incidents from lngaob
This document summarizes methods for assessing consequences of incidents involving releases from liquefied natural gas carriers. It recommends using an orifice model to estimate release rates, Webber's methodology to model pool spreading accounting for frictional forces, and heat transfer theory to calculate heat flux to boiling pools. For fires, it recommends using a solid flame model. It also provides injury and damage criteria for assessing impacts to people and structures from thermal radiation. The document notes limitations in current models and calls for additional research, particularly spill tests, to improve accuracy.
Evaporation effects on jetting performanceRobert Cornell
This document discusses evaporation effects on inkjet performance and image quality. It summarizes that as nozzles sit idle, water evaporation causes large localized viscosity variations in the inkjet ejector. This has a negative impact on jetting performance and print quality. The document then goes into detail explaining the multi-physics involved, including heat and mass convection/diffusion at the ink-air interface, and how this affects the transient viscosity fields and ultimately jetting and image quality. Models are used to predict and understand these relationships and tradeoffs between ink formulation, environmental effects, and ejector design.
Applying Proper Dispersion Models for Industrial Accidental ReleasesBREEZE Software
This paper will analyze and compare various dispersion models (e.g., DEGADIS, SLAB, INPUFF, or ALOHA) readily available in the public domain for industrial accidental releases.
This document provides a review of turbulent combustion modeling closures for large eddy simulations (LES), with a focus on models applicable to propulsion applications. It identifies three classes of models that can provide broad-based modeling: flamelet-library/presumed PDF models, linear eddy based (LEM) models, and transported PDF or filtered density function (FDF) based models. The document discusses the fundamental physical assumptions of these models, particularly regarding the presumed size of the turbulent scalar manifold. It also provides novel results from direct numerical simulations testing some assumptions using flames with detailed and reduced chemistry models.
Modeling Accelerated Degradation Data Using Wiener Diffusion With A Time Scal...Accendo Reliability
My first technical paper and it's on accelerated degradation modeling. My entry to reliability engineering.
Engineering degradation tests allow industry to assess the potential life span of long-life products
that do not fail readily under accelerated conditions in life tests. A general statistical model is presented here for
performance degradation of an item of equipment. The degradation process in the model is taken to be a Wiener
diffusion process with a time scale transformation. The model incorporates Arrhenius extrapolation for high stress
testing. The lifetime of an item is defined as the time until performance deteriorates to a specified failure threshold.
The model can be used to predict the lifetime of an item or the extent of degradation of an item at a specified future
time. Inference methods for the model parameters, based on accelerated degradation test data, are presented. The
model and inference methods are illustrated with a case application involving self-regulating heating cables. The
paper also discusses a number of practical issues encountered in applications.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Computer simulation for prediction of performance and thermodynamic parameters of high energy materials
Computational modeling; Detonation velocity; Heat of explosion; Chapman–Jouguet (C–J) pressure; Volume of explosion products; Hazardous
materials
Research Internship Thesis - Final Report - Ankit KukrejaANKIT KUKREJA
This document is a project report that measures the vapor pressures and gaseous diffusion coefficients of some selected organic and metalorganic compounds. It begins with an introduction to vapor pressure and its importance in chemical vapor deposition processes. It then describes three common techniques to measure vapor pressure: the Langmuir effusion method, transpiration method, and Knudsen effusion method. The document discusses how vapor pressure depends on temperature based on the Clausius-Clapeyron equation and heat of sublimation. It also covers the measurement of gaseous diffusion coefficients using a quartz crystal microbalance. The experimental section provides details of the Knudsen method setup used and diffusion coefficient measurements. Results are then presented and discussed for
REVIEW OF FLOW DISTRIBUTION NETWORK ANALYSIS FOR DISCHARGE SIDE OF CENTRIFUGA...ijiert bestjournal
A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis has been conducted to find the pressure losses for dividing and combining fluid flow through a junction of discharge system. Simulations are performed for a range of flow ratios and equations are developed for pressure loss coefficients at junctions. A mathematical model based on s uccessive approximations then would be employed to estimate the pressure losses. The proposed CFD based strategy can be used for the analysis of all the three pipe branches of s ome diameter are selected along with equal length so that only the effect of bend angle can be st udied. The effect of bend angle,pipe diameter,pipe length,reynolds number on the resistan ce coefficient is studied. The software used is CATIA for modeling and ANSYS fluent for analysis purpose.
- The document discusses numerical simulations of the electrostatic spray painting process using high-speed rotary bell atomizers.
- Experiments were conducted to validate the sensitivity of the simulations to variations in operating conditions like paint flow rate and bell speed, as well as different target geometries.
- The simulations demonstrated good agreement with experimental measurements of film thickness and were able to accurately predict changes based on different operating conditions and target shapes.
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were used to measure the vapor pressure and heat of vaporization of organic compounds. TGA was able to estimate the vapor pressure of naphthalene and anthracene to within 21% and 30% of literature values, respectively. DSC trials in non-sealed pans measured heats of sublimation within 5% of literature, while sealed pan trials did not reduce boiling points below literature values due to pressurization. Further development is needed to apply these methods to organic materials.
Diffusers are extensively used in centrifugal
compressors, axial flow compressors, ram jets, combustion
chambers, inlet portions of jet engines and etc. A small change in
pressure recovery can increases the efficiency significantly.
Therefore diffusers are absolutely essential for good turbo
machinery performance. The geometric limitations in aircraft
applications where the diffusers need to be specially designed so
as to achieve maximum pressure recovery and avoiding flow
separation.
The study behind the investigation of flow separation in a planar
diffuser by varying the diffuser taper angle for axisymmetric
expansion. Numerical solution of 2D axisymmetric diffuser model
is validated for skin friction coefficient and pressure coefficient
along upper and bottom wall surfaces with the experimental
results of planar diffuser predicted by Vance Dippold and
Nicholas J. Georgiadis in NASA research center [2]
.
Further the diffuser taper angle is varied for other different
angles and results shows the effect of flow separation were it is
reduces i.e., for what angle and at which angle it is just avoided.
This document summarizes previous numerical studies of detonation waves in premixed hydrogen-air mixtures and assesses the accuracy of simplified chemical reaction mechanisms. It describes the classical ZND detonation wave structure and compares numerical results to ZND theory. Several chemical mechanisms of varying complexity are evaluated using zero-dimensional combustion simulations and one-dimensional detonation wave simulations. Comparisons to experimental detonation speeds help validate the chemical models. The document discusses limitations of previous studies and aims to better understand the effects of chemical kinetics models on computed detonation wave structures.
1) The document analytically solves the nonisothermal Buckley-Leverett problem for two-phase immiscible flow in porous media including a tracer component and temperature effects.
2) Mass balances for the fluids and tracer and a convective heat balance equation are formulated and solved using the method of characteristics.
3) The solutions can be used to analyze pressure transients, interpret formation testing, calculate temperature front propagation during waterflooding, and benchmark simulators.
This document discusses coupling the near-field plume model CORMIX with the far-field hydrodynamic model Delft3D-FLOW to accurately simulate cooling water discharges over different spatial scales. It presents the distributed entrainment sink approach used to dynamically couple the models. Validation shows the coupled model reproduces observed physical phenomena in laboratory and field measurements better than traditional modeling. The coupled approach allows more realistic assessment of environmental impacts and intake temperatures.
This document discusses the development and history of the SPRAY Lagrangian dispersion model code over several decades. It began in the 1980s as a collaboration between researchers in France and Italy to develop a particle-based Lagrangian model. The code was further developed in the 1990s by additional researchers in Italy. It has been used to model dispersion for applications like predicting pollutant concentrations. Key publications discussing updates to the model, like adding chemical reactions and testing against experimental data, are also summarized.
This document describes a model developed to predict the optimal reaction temperature of an industrial fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit riser. A pseudo-homogeneous two-dimensional model was developed using a five-lump reaction scheme. Mass transfer resistance was incorporated to improve accuracy over previous one-dimensional plug flow models. Finite difference methods were used to discretize the governing equations which were then solved using MATLAB. Simulation results identified three temperature regimes for catalyst coking. An optimum temperature range of 786K-788K and catalyst-to-oil ratio range of 4.60-4.71 were predicted to minimize coke on catalyst without reducing gasoline yield.
This document describes a model developed to predict the optimal reaction temperature of an industrial fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit riser. A pseudo-homogeneous two-dimensional model was developed using a five-lump reaction scheme. Mass transfer resistance was incorporated to improve accuracy over previous one-dimensional plug flow models. Finite difference methods were used to discretize the governing equations which were then solved using MATLAB. Simulation results identified three temperature regimes for catalyst coking. An optimum temperature range of 786K-788K and catalyst-to-oil ratio range of 4.60-4.71 were predicted to minimize coke on catalyst without reducing gasoline yield.
This document discusses smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH), a Lagrangian numerical method for simulating fluid flows. SPH uses discrete particles that move with the fluid and sample hydrodynamic properties by averaging values over neighboring particles. The document outlines the basic concepts of SPH, including how it approximates continuous fields with discrete particles and calculates spatial derivatives. It also discusses how SPH can be used to model astrophysical phenomena through numerical simulations since laboratory experiments are often impossible at astrophysical scales.
Similar to Overview of consequence modelling in the hazard assessment package phast witlox tcm8-12814 (1) (20)
International Cancer Survivors Day is celebrated during June, placing the spotlight not only on cancer survivors, but also their caregivers.
CANSA has compiled a list of tips and guidelines of support:
https://cansa.org.za/who-cares-for-cancer-patients-caregivers/
Let's Talk About It: Breast Cancer (What is Mindset and Does it Really Matter?)bkling
Your mindset is the way you make sense of the world around you. This lens influences the way you think, the way you feel, and how you might behave in certain situations. Let's talk about mindset myths that can get us into trouble and ways to cultivate a mindset to support your cancer survivorship in authentic ways. Let’s Talk About It!
PET CT beginners Guide covers some of the underrepresented topics in PET CTMiadAlsulami
This lecture briefly covers some of the underrepresented topics in Molecular imaging with cases , such as:
- Primary pleural tumors and pleural metastases.
- Distinguishing between MPM and Talc Pleurodesis.
- Urological tumors.
- The role of FDG PET in NET.
Under Pressure : Kenneth Kruk's StrategyKenneth Kruk
Kenneth Kruk's story of transforming challenges into opportunities by leading successful medical record transitions and bridging scientific knowledge gaps during COVID-19.
Dr. David Greene R3 stem cell Breakthroughs: Stem Cell Therapy in CardiologyR3 Stem Cell
Dr. David Greene, founder and CEO of R3 Stem Cell, is at the forefront of groundbreaking research in the field of cardiology, focusing on the transformative potential of stem cell therapy. His latest work emphasizes innovative approaches to treating heart disease, aiming to repair damaged heart tissue and improve heart function through the use of advanced stem cell techniques. This research promises not only to enhance the quality of life for patients with chronic heart conditions but also to pave the way for new, more effective treatments. Dr. Greene's work is notable for its focus on safety, efficacy, and the potential to significantly reduce the need for invasive surgeries and long-term medication, positioning stem cell therapy as a key player in the future of cardiac care.
Feeding plate for a newborn with Cleft Palate.pptxSatvikaPrasad
A feeding plate is a prosthetic device used for newborns with a cleft palate to assist in feeding and improve nutrition intake. From a prosthodontic perspective, this plate acts as a barrier between the oral and nasal cavities, facilitating effective sucking and swallowing by providing a more normal anatomical structure. It helps to prevent milk from entering the nasal passage, thereby reducing the risk of aspiration and enhancing the infant's ability to feed efficiently. The feeding plate also aids in the development of the oral muscles and can contribute to better growth and weight gain. Its custom fabrication and proper fitting by a prosthodontist are crucial for ensuring comfort and functionality, as well as for minimizing potential complications. Early intervention with a feeding plate can significantly improve the quality of life for both the infant and the parents.
Letter to MREC - application to conduct studyAzreen Aj
Application to conduct study on research title 'Awareness and knowledge of oral cancer and precancer among dental outpatient in Klinik Pergigian Merlimau, Melaka'
About this webinar: This talk will introduce what cancer rehabilitation is, where it fits into the cancer trajectory, and who can benefit from it. In addition, the current landscape of cancer rehabilitation in Canada will be discussed and the need for advocacy to increase access to this essential component of cancer care.
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardso...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardson, Verified Chapters 1 - 18, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardson, Verified Chapters 1 - 18, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For Accounting Information Systems, 3rd Edition by Vernon Richardson, Verified Chapters 1 - 18, Complete Newest Version
Gemma Wean- Nutritional solution for Artemiasmuskaan0008
GEMMA Wean is a high end larval co-feeding and weaning diet aimed at Artemia optimisation and is fortified with a high level of proteins and phospholipids. GEMMA Wean provides the early weaned juveniles with dedicated fish nutrition and is an ideal follow on from GEMMA Micro or Artemia.
GEMMA Wean has an optimised nutritional balance and physical quality so that it flows more freely and spreads readily on the water surface. The balance of phospholipid classes to- gether with the production technology based on a low temperature extrusion process improve the physical aspect of the pellets while still retaining the high phospholipid content.
GEMMA Wean is available in 0.1mm, 0.2mm and 0.3mm. There is also a 0.5mm micro-pellet, GEMMA Wean Diamond, which covers the early nursery stage from post-weaning to pre-growing.
The best massage spa Ajman is Chandrima Spa Ajman, which was founded in 2023 and is exclusively for men 24 hours a day. As of right now, our parent firm has been providing massage services to over 50,000+ clients in Ajman for the past 10 years. It has about 8+ branches. This demonstrates that Chandrima Spa Ajman is among the most reasonably priced spas in Ajman and the ideal place to unwind and rejuvenate. We provide a wide range of Spa massage treatments, including Indian, Pakistani, Kerala, Malayali, and body-to-body massages. Numerous massage techniques are available, including deep tissue, Swedish, Thai, Russian, and hot stone massages. Our massage therapists produce genuinely unique treatments that generate a revitalized sense of inner serenely by fusing modern techniques, the cleanest natural substances, and traditional holistic therapists.
KEY Points of Leicester travel clinic In London doc.docxNX Healthcare
In order to protect visitors' safety and wellbeing, Travel Clinic Leicester offers a wide range of travel-related health treatments, including individualized counseling and vaccines. Our team of medical experts specializes in getting people ready for international travel, with a particular emphasis on vaccines and health consultations to prevent travel-related illnesses. We provide a range of travel-related services, such as health concerns unique to a trip, prevention of malaria, and travel-related medical supplies. Our clinic is dedicated to providing top-notch care, keeping abreast of the most recent recommendations for vaccinations and travel health precautions. The goal of Travel Clinic Leicester is to keep you safe and well-rested no matter what kind of travel you choose—business, pleasure, or adventure.
KEY Points of Leicester travel clinic In London doc.docx
Overview of consequence modelling in the hazard assessment package phast witlox tcm8-12814 (1)
1. 7.2.
OVERVIEW OF CONSEQUENCE MODELLING IN THE HAZARD ASSESSMENT PACKAGE PHAST
Henk W.M. Witlox**
- DNV Software, London, UK
**
Corresponding author address: Henk W.M. Witlox, DNV Software, Palace House, 3 Cathedral Street, London SE1 9DE, UK, e-mail:
henk.witlox@dnv.com
ABSTRACT
This presentation provides an overview of the hazard
assessment software package Phast for consequence
modelling of accidental releases of toxic or flammable
chemicals to the atmosphere. The consequence
modelling involves the following consecutive steps:
- First discharge calculations are carried out to set
release characteristics for the hazardous chemical
(including depressurisation to ambient). Scenarios
which may be modelled includes releases from
vessels (leaks or catastrophic ruptures), short
pipes or long pipes and releases of combustion
products following a warehouse fire. Released
considered include releases of sub-cooled liquid,
superheated liquid or vapour releases. Furthermore
are considered un-pressurised or pressurised
releases, and continuous, time-varying or
instantaneous releases.
- Secondly dispersion calculations are carried out to
determine the concentrations of the hazardous
chemical when the cloud travels in the downwind
direction. This includes effects of jet, heavy-gas
and passive dispersion. In the case of a two-phase
release rainout may occur, and pool
formation/spreading and re-evaporation is
modelled. Also effects of indoor dispersion (for
indoor releases) and building wakes can be
accounted for.
- Subsequently toxic or flammable calculations are
carried out. For flammables, ignition may lead to
fireballs (instantaneous releases), jet fires
(pressurised flammable releases), pool fires (after
rainout) and vapour cloud fires or explosions.
Radiation calculations are carried out for fires,
while overpressure calculations are carried out for
explosions. For each event, the probability of death
is determined using toxic or flammable probit
functions.
The current presentation presents a brief overview of
the above consequence methodology. It also
summarizes the “verification” that the code correctly
solves the mathematical model (i.e. that the calculated
variables are a correct solution of the equations),
“validation” against experimental data to show how
closely the mathematical model agrees with the
experimental results, and a “sensitivity analysis”
including a large number of input parameter variations
to ensure overall robustness of the code, and to
understand the effect of parameter variations on the
model predictions.
1. INTRODUCTION
Typical release scenarios involve liquid, two-phase or
gas releases from vessel or pipe work attached to
vessels. Consequence modelling first involves
discharge modelling. Secondly a cloud forms which
moves in the downwind direction, and atmospheric
dispersion calculations are carried out to calculate the
cloud concentrations. In case of two-phase releases
rainout may occur, and pool formation/spreading and
re-evaporation needs to be modelled. For flammable
materials modelling is required of jet fires or fireballs in
case of immediate ignition, pool fires in case of ignition
of a pool formed following rainout, and explosions or
vapour cloud fires (flash fires) in case of delayed
ignition; Figure 1 illustrates the example case of a
continuous release with rainout.
To ensure the quality of consequence-modelling
software thorough testing is paramount. This is ideally
carried out by means of the following subsequent
phases:
1. Verification that the code correctly solves the
mathematical model, i.e. that the calculated
variables are a correct solution of the equations. In
case of a ‘simple’ mathematical model (e.g. not
using differential equations but non-linear
equations for unknown variables only), it can often
be directly verified by insertion of the solved
variables (calculated from the code) in the original
equations, and checking that the equations are
indeed satisfied. This is usually most expediently
done by writing a ‘verification’ Excel spreadsheet in
parallel with the code. In case of a more complex
model expressed by a number of differential
equations, the model can sometimes be solved
analytically for some specific cases. Verification
then consists of checking that the analytical
solution is identical to the numerical solution. For a
more general case, the more complex model can
no longer be solved analytically. The only way of
verifying the model is by comparing it with another
model that solves the same (type of) equations.
2. Validation against experimental data. After, as
shown above, the code has been verified to
correctly solve the mathematical model, validation
2. 2
against experimental data will show how closely
the mathematical model agrees with the
experimental results. This provides a justification
for the simplified assumptions made to derive the
mathematical model.
3. Sensitivity analysis. This involves carrying out a
large number of input parameter variations (e.g.
hole diameter, ambient temperature, etc.) for a
number of base cases (e.g. continuous vertical
methane jet release, instantaneous ground-level
propane un-pressurised release, etc.). Its purpose
is to ensure overall robustness of the code, and to
understand the effect of parameter variations on
the model predictions.
jet
fire
jet
fire
pool fire
explosion or
flash fire
droplet
trajectory
flashing two-phase
discharge from vessel vapour-plume
centre-line
pool
point of
rainout
SUBSTRATE
Figure 1. Continuous two-phase release of
flammable material with rainout
This paper includes a brief overview of the “verification”
and “validation” of consequence models in the hazard
assessment package Phast and the risk analysis
package Phast Risk (formerly known as SAFETI). The
Phast results presented in this paper correspond to
Phast version 6.53. These are expected to be very
close or identical to results for the latest version 6.54.
A limited number of key scenarios are considered, while
reference is made to key papers for details. Reference
is made to the literature for the availability of
experimental data.
Sections 2, 3 and 4 describe the verification and
validation for discharge modelling, dispersion and pool
modelling, and flammable effects modelling,
respectively. The experimental results quoted in the
current paper are independent of the empirical basis of
the model for the discharge, dispersion and pool
models. The flammable models in Phast are largely
semi-empirical models available in the public domain,
and some degree of fitting may have been conducted
against experimental data.
2. DISCHARGE
For releases of hazardous materials a wide range of
scenarios can occur including instantaneous releases
(catastrophic vessel rupture), and continuous and time-
varying releases (leak from vessel, short pipe or long
pipe). The stored material could be a sub-cooled liquid,
a (flashing) superheated liquid, or a gas. As shown in
Figure 2, the discharge model calculates both the
expansion from the initial storage conditions to the
orifice conditions, as well as the subsequent expansion
from orifice conditions to atmospheric conditions. For
superheated liquid releases, liquid break-up into
droplets occurs along the expansion zone. It is typically
assumed that the length of the expansion zone is very
small with negligible air entrainment.
pipe
flow
expansion zone
leak orifice atmosphere
vessel
(stagnation)
Figure 2. Expansion from stagnation to
orifice and from orifice to ambient
conditions
Key output data of the discharge model are flow rate,
orifice data [velocity, liquid fraction] and post-expansion
data [velocity, liquid fraction, initial droplet size
(distribution)]. The post-expansion data are the starting
point (“source term”) of the subsequent dispersion
calculations.
In the literature numerous discharge models can be
found. Key literature including description of discharge
models and experimental data include Perry’s
handbook (Perry et al., 1999), the DIERS project
manual (Fisher et al., 1992), CCPS QRA guidelines
(CCPS, 2000), Sections 15.1-15.9 in Lees (Lees, 1996),
and Chapter 2 in the TNO Yellow Book (TNO, 1997). The
author did not find an up-to-date published overview of
key experiments (benchmark tests for discharge
models; input data and experimental results), in
conjunction with a systematic evaluation of discharge
models.
Key verification tests include comparison of the model
against well-established analytical flow-rate equations
for incompressible liquid (Bernoulli equation) and ideal
gases. In addition verification could be considered
between different discharge models and verification
against results from process simulators (e.g. HYSIS or
PROII).
Key validation tests include sub-cooled and saturated
pipe and orifice releases of water (Sozzi and
Sutherland, 1975; Uchida and Narai, 1966), and also
data for hydrocarbon releases.
A detailed verification and validation has recently been
carried out for the Phast discharge model for releases
3. 3
from vessels and/or short pipes including amongst
others the above cases. Figure 3 illustrates the
comparison for the Phast 6.53 model against sub-
cooled water jets. The Phast long pipeline model has
been validated for propane two-phase releases [Isle of
Grain experiments (Cowley and Tam, 1988; Webber et
al., 1999)].
Detailed validation of droplet modelling for two-phase
releases was carried out by Witlox et al. (2010) using a
range of droplet-size correlations accounting for both
mechanical and flashing break-up of the droplets. This
includes validation of initial droplet size for small-scale
experiments by Cardiff University (water, cyclohexane,
butane and propane), the EU STEP experiments
(flashing propane jets), experiments by the Belgium
Von Karman Institute (flashing R134-A jets), and
experiments carried out in France by Ecole des Mines
and INERIS (water and butane). It also includes
validation of the rainout against the CCPS experiments
(flashing jets of water, CFC-11, chlorine, cyclohexane,
monomethylamine).
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Pipe length (m)
Ratioofpredictedtoobservedflowrate(-)
PHAST6.53-Sozzi&Sutherland
PHAST6.53-Uchida&Narai
Figure 3. Phast 6.53 validation of flow rate
for sub-cooled water release
3. DISPERSION AND POOL
SPREADING/EVAPORATION
For dispersion modelling a very wide range of scenarios
can be considered. Distinction can be made between
momentum (un-pressurised or pressurised releases),
time-dependency (steady-state, finite-duration,
instantaneous or time-varying dispersion), buoyancy
(buoyant rising cloud, passive dispersion or heavy-gas-
dispersion), thermodynamic behaviour (isothermal or
cold or hot plume, vapour or liquid or solid or multiple-
phase, reactions or no reactions), ground effects (soil or
water, flat terrain with uniform surface roughness,
variable surface roughness, non-flat terrain, obstacles),
and ambient conditions (e.g. stable, neutral or unstable
conditions).
In the literature numerous text books and articles on
dispersion can be found. Key literature including
description of models and experimental data include
Chapter 4 in the TNO yellow book (TNO, 1997),
Sections 15.11-15.54 in Lees (Lees, 1996), and the
CCPS dispersion guidelines (CCPS, 1996). Key
experiments (benchmark tests for dispersion; input data
and experimental results) have been stored in the MDA
database by Hanna et al. (1993) in conjunction with
comparison and validation of a wide range of models.
Likewise data are stored in the REDIPHEM database
partly as part of the EU project SMEDIS (Daish et al.,
1999). The SMEDIS project has also produced a
protocol for evaluating heavy gas dispersion models,
which has also recently been proposed for application
to LNG (Ivings et al., 2007).
Model verification and validation for dispersion models
is illustrated below for the Phast dispersion model UDM
(Witlox and Holt, 1999, 2007). This is an integral model,
which can account for all the above type of releases
except for effects of obstacles and non-flat terrain. The
verification and validation for the UDM can be
summarised as follows [see Witlox and Holt (2007) for
full details and a detailed list of references]:
1. Jet and near-field passive dispersion. For an
elevated horizontal continuous jet (of air), the UDM
numerical results are shown to be identical to the
results obtained by an analytical solution. For
vertical jets very good agreement has been
obtained against both the “Pratte and Baines” and
“Briggs” plume rise correlations.
2. Heavy-gas dispersion. The UDM numerical results
are shown to be in identical agreement against an
analytical solution for a 2-D isothermal ground-level
plume. The UDM has been validated against the
set of three 2-D wind-tunnel experiments of
McQuaid (1976). The new formulation has also
been validated against the HTAG wind tunnel
experiments (Petersen and Ratcliff, 1988).
Furthermore the UDM model was verified against
the HGSYSTEM model HEGADAS.
3. Far-field passive dispersion. For purely (far-field)
passive continuous dispersion, the UDM numerical
results are shown to be in close agreement with the
vertical and crosswind dispersion coefficients and
concentrations obtained from the commonly
adopted analytical Gaussian passive dispersion
formula. The same agreement has been obtained
for the case of purely (far-field) passive
instantaneous dispersion, while assuming along-
wind spreading equal to cross-wind spreading in
the analytical profile.
4. Finite-duration releases. The UDM “Finite-duration-
correction” module has been verified against the
HGSYSTEM/SLAB steady-state results, and shown
to lead to finite-duration corrections virtually
identical to the latter programs. Furthermore
excellent agreement was obtained using this
module for validation against the Kit Fox
experiments (20-second releases of CO2 during
both neutral and stable conditions; see Figure 4).
4. 4
5. Thermodynamics. The UDM dispersion model
invokes the thermodynamics module while solving
the dispersion equations in the downwind direction.
This module describes the mixing of the released
component with moist air, and may take into
account water-vapour and heat transfer from the
substrate to the cloud. The module calculates the
phase distribution [component (vapour, liquid),
water (vapour, liquid, ice)], vapour and liquid cloud
temperature, and cloud density. Thus separate
water (liquid or ice) and component (liquid)
aerosols may form. The liquid component in the
aerosol is considered to consist of spherical
droplets and additional droplet equations may be
solved to determine the droplet trajectories, droplet
mass and droplet temperature. Rainout of the liquid
component occurs if the droplet size is sufficiently
large. The thermodynamics module also allows for
more rigorous multi-component modelling (Witlox
et al., 2006). The UDM homogeneous equilibrium
model has been verified for both single-component
and multi-component materials against the
HEGADAS model. The UDM HF thermodynamics
model (including effects of aqueous fog formation
and polymerisation) was validated against the
experiments by Schotte (1987).
6. Pool spreading/evaporation. If the droplet reaches
the ground, rainout occurs, i.e. removal of the liquid
component from the cloud. This produces a liquid
pool which spreads and vaporises (see Figure 1).
Vapour is added back into the cloud and allowance
is made for this additional vapour flow to vary with
time. The UDM source term model PVAP
calculates the spreading and vapour flow rate from
the pool. Different models are adopted depending
whether the spill is on land or water, and whether it
is an instantaneous or a continuous release. The
pool spreads until it reaches a bund or a minimum
pool thickness. The pool may either boil or
evaporate while simultaneously spreading. For
spills on land, the model takes into account heat
conduction from the ground, ambient convection
form the air, radiation and vapour diffusion. These
are usually the main mechanisms for boiling and
evaporation. Solution and possible reaction of the
liquid in water are also included for spills on water,
these being important for some chemicals. These
effects are modelled numerically, maintaining mass
and heat balances for both boiling and evaporating
pools. This allows the pool temperature to vary as
heat is either absorbed by the liquid or lost during
evaporation.
PVAP was verified by David Webber against the
SRD/HSE model GASP for a range of scenarios
with the aim of testing the various sub-modules,
and overall good agreement was obtained. The
PVAP spreading logic was first validated against
experimental data for spreading of non-volatile
materials. Subsequently the PVAP evaporation
logic was validated against experimental data in
confined areas where spreading does not take
place. Finally comparisons were made for
simultaneously spreading and vaporising pools.
The above validation was carried out for both spills
on water and land, and a wide range of materials
was included [LNG, propane, butane, pentane,
hexane, cyclo-hexane, toluene, ammonia, nitrogen,
water, Freon-11)].
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1 10 100 1000
Downwind distance (m)
Centrelineconcentration(mol%)
Phast 6.53 (FDC)
Experimental
Figure 4. UDM dispersion results for Kit Fox
experiment KF0706 (20 second
release)
The above covers the verification and the validation for
the individual UDM modules. The validation of the
overall model was carried out against large-scale field
experiments selected from the MDA and REDIPHEM
databases, including the following:
- Prairie Grass (continuous passive dispersion
of sulphur dioxide).
- Desert Tortoise and FLADIS (continuous
elevated two-phase ammonia jet)
- EEC (continuous elevated two-phase propane
jet)
- Goldfish (continuous elevated two-phase HF
jet)
- Maplin Sands, Burro and Coyote (continuous
evaporation of LNG from pool)
- Thorney Island (instantaneous un-pressurised
ground-level release of Freon-12)
- Kit Fox (continuous and finite-duration heavy-
gas dispersion of CO2 from area source)
Each of the above experimental sets was statistically
evaluated to determine the accuracy and precision of
the UDM predictions with the observed data. Formulas
adopted by Hanna et al. (1993) were used to calculate
the geometric mean bias (under or over-prediction of
mean) and mean variance (scatter from observed data)
for each validation run. This was carried out for centre-
line concentrations, cloud widths, and (for the SMEDIS
experiments) also off centre-line concentrations. The
overall performance of the UDM in predicting both peak
centreline concentration and cloud widths was found to
be good for the above experiments.
5. 5
The overall UDM model was also recently verified by
means of comparison against other models for three US
chlorine accidents involving elevated two-phase
chlorine jet releases. This is illustrated by Figure 5 for
the case of the Graniteville accident; see Hanna et al.
(2007) for full details.
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
0.1 1 10
x (km)
Cl2Concentration(ppmv)
TRACE
PHAST
SCIPUFF
SLAB
HGSYSTEM
ALOHA
Figure 5. UDM (PHAST) verification against
other models for Graniteville
Chlorine accident
4. FLAMMABLE EFFECTS
This section deals with the verification and validation of
flammable effect models (fireballs, pool fires, jet fires
and explosions, vapour cloud fires). Furthermore the
most-established empirical models are considered only.
Key literature including description of these models and
experimental data include Chapters 5-6 of the TNO
yellow book (TNO, 1997), Sections 16-17 in Lees
(1996) and the CCPS guidelines (CCPS, 1994).
Fireballs, jet fires and pool fires
Empirical models for these fires include empirical
correlations describing the fire geometry (most
commonly a sphere for a fireball, a tilted cylinder for
pool fire, and a cone for the jet fire) and the surface
emissive power (radiation per unit of area emitted from
the fire surface area); see Figure 6.
The radiation intensity (W/m
2
) for a observer with given
position and orientation is set as the product of the
surface emissive power and the view factor. The view
factor including the effects of atmospheric absorption is
derived by means of integration over the flame surface.
In Phast this integration is carried out numerically, while
other models adopt analytical expressions for specific
fire geometries.
The fireball model from Martinsen and Marx (1999) is
based on extensive literature, detailed tests and also
allows for lift-off. More simplistic models are included in
the above general references. The latter models can
easily be verified by simple hand calculations.
The Phast pool fire model has been validated against
data for LNG pool fires (Johnson, 1992); see Figure 7
which also includes verification against model
predictions by Johnson (1992). Furthermore it has been
validated against the Montoir LNG tests (Nedelka et al.,
1990) and hexane tests (Lois and Swithenbank, 1979).
H
θ
D
H
θ
D
WIND
Z
X
W2
θj
W1
b
RL
Lb
α
WIND
Figure 6. Geometry for pool fire (tilted
cylinder) and jet fire (cone)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Measured heat flux (kW/m2)
Predictedheatflux(kW/m2)
0% deviation
-15% deviation
15% deviation
-40% deviation
40% deviation
Johnson (1992)
PHAST 6.53
Figure 7. Predicted against measured
incident radiation at different
observer positions and
orientations using the Phast 6.53
and Johnson pool fire models
6. 6
The Phast jet fire model has been validated against
vertical natural-gas releases (Chamberlain, 1987),
horizontal natural-gas and two-phase LPG releases
(Bennett et al., 1991), and horizontal liquid-phase crude
oil releases (Selby and Burgan, 1998). It has also
been verified against model predictions by Johnson
(Johnson et al., 1994) in the case of the horizontal
natural-gas releases; see Figure 8.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 5 10 15 20 25
Measured heat flux (kW/m2)
Predictedheatflux(kW/m2)
0% deviation
-15% deviation
15% deviation
-40% deviation
40% deviation
Johnson (1994)-Simulated Data
PHAST 6.53
Figure 8. Predicted against measured
incident radiation at different
observer positions and
orientations using the Phast 6.53
and Johnson jet fire models
Explosion
Fitzgerald (2001) includes a detailed comparison of the
TNO multi-energy (1988), Baker-Strehlow (1999) and
CAM models (1999). This includes information of the
latest versions of these models and comparison against
experimental data (EMERGE experiments by TNO
(EMERGE, 1998) and BFETS experiments by SCI
(Selby and Burgan, 1998)). Clear conclusions are
provided indicating under which conditions which model
is best on overpressure prediction. He states that the
overpressure predictions of the CAM and multi-energy
models were found to be more accurate than the Baker-
Strehlow model. CAM was found to be the most
complex method to use. The Baker-Strehlow model
predictions was quoted to have a high degree of
confidence due to the lack of assumptions made in the
comparisons and it is quoted to be the easiest of the
three methods to apply.
The latest available versions of the multi-energy
(MULT) and Baker-Strehlow (BSEX) models have been
implemented into Phast. They have been validated
against the above EMERGE and BFETS experiments;
see Figure 9 for the predictions of overpressure (as
function of distance from the edge of the congestion
zone) for the case of the EMERGE 6 propane
experiment (medium-scale 3D medium-congestion).
0.00E+00
1.00E+04
2.00E+04
3.00E+04
4.00E+04
5.00E+04
6.00E+04
0.00E+00 1.00E+01 2.00E+01 3.00E+01 4.00E+01 5.00E+01
Distance from edge (m)
Overpressure(Pa)
Test Average
Test Maximum
BSEX Results
MULT Results
Figure 9. Validation of Phast models MULT
and BSEX against EMERGE 6
REFERENCES
Bennett, J. F., Cowley, L. T., Davenport, J. N., and
Rowson, J. J., 1991, “Large scale natural gas and LPG
jet fires - final report to the CEC”, TNER 91.022
Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers (CCPS), 1994,
“Guidelines for Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor
Cloud Explosions, Flash Fires and Bleves”, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York
CCPS, 1996, “Guidelines for use of vapor cloud
dispersion models”, Second Edition, CCPS, New York
CCPS, 2000, “Guidelines for chemical process
quantitative risk analysis”, Second Edition, CCPS, New
York, Section 2.1.1 – discharge rate models
Chamberlain, G.A., 1987, “Developments in design
methods for predicting thermal radiation from flares”,
Chem. Eng. Res. Des., 65: 299-309
Cowley, L.T. and Tam, V.H.Y., 1988, "Consequences of
pressurised LPG releases: the Isle of Grain full scale
experiments", GASTECH 88, 13th International
LNG/LPG Conference, Kuala Lumpur
Daish, N.C, Britter, R.E., Linden, P.F., Jagger, S.F. and
Carissimo, B., 1999, “SMEDIS: Scientific Model
Evaluation Techniques Applied to Dense Gas
Dispersion models in complex situations”., Int. Conf.
and workshop on modelling the consequences of
accidental releases of hazardous materials, San
Francisco, California, CCPS, New York, 345-372
EMERGE, 1998, “Extended Modelling and
Experimental Research into Gas Explosions”, Final
Summary Report for the project EMERGE, CEC
Contract EV5V-CT93-0274
7. 7
Fisher, H.G., Forrest, H.S., Grossel, S.S., Huff, J.E.,
Muller, A.R., Noronha, J.A., Shaw, D.A., and Tilley,
B.J., 1992, “Emergency Relief System Design using
DIERS technology”, DIERS project manual, ISBN No.
0-8169-0568-1, Pub. No. X-123, AICHE, New York
Fitzgerald, G., 2001, ‘A comparison of Simple Vapor
Cloud Explosion Prediction Methodologies”, Second
Annual Symposium, Mary Kay O’Connor Process
Safety Center, “Beyond Regulatory Compliance:
Making Safety Second Nature”, Reed Arena, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas
Hanna, S.R., Chang, J.C. and Strimaitis, D.G., 1993,
“Hazardous gas model evaluation with field
observations”, Atm. Env., 27a: 2265-2285
Hanna, S., Dharmavaram, S., Zhang, J., Sykes, I.,
Witlox, H. W. M., Khajehnajafi, S. and Koslan, K., 2007,
“Comparison of six widely-used dense gas dispersion
models for three actual chlorine railcar accidents”,
Proceedings of 29th NATO/SPS International Technical
Meeting on Air Pollution Modelling and its Application,
24 - 28 September 2007, Aveiro, Portugal
Ivings, M.J., Jagger, S.F., Lea, C.J. and Webber, D.M.,
2007, “Evaluating vapor dispersion models for safety
analysis of LNG facilities”, Contract by HSL for Fire
Protection Research Foundation, Quincy,
Massachusetts
Johnson, A.D., 1992, “A model for predicting thermal
radiation hazards from large-scale LNG pool fires”,
IChemE Symp. Series, 130: 507-524
Johnson, A.D., Brightwell, H.M., and Carsley, A.J.,
1994, “A model for predicting the thermal radiation
hazard from large scale horizontally released natural
gas jet fires”, Trans. IChemE., 72B:157-166
Lees, F.P., 1996, “Loss Prevention in the process
industries: hazard identification, assessment and
control”, Second Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford
Lois, E., and Swithenbank, J., 1979, “Fire hazards in oil
tank arrays in a wind”, 17th Symposium (Int.) on
Combustion, Leeds, Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh,
PA, 1087-1098
Martinsen, W.E. and Marx, J.D., 1999, “An improved
model for the prediction of radiant heat from fireballs”,
International Conference and Workshop on Modelling
the Consequences of Accidental Releases of
Hazardous Materials, CCPS, San Francisco, California,
September 28 – October 1, 605-621
McQuaid, J., 1976, “Some experiments on the structure
of stably stratified shear flows”, Technical Paper P21,
Safety in Mines Research Establishment, Sheffield, UK
Nedelka, D., Moorhouse, J., and Tucker, R. F., 1990,
“The Montoir 35m diameter LNG pool fire experiments”,
Proc. 9
th
Intl. Cong and Exposition on LNG, LNG9,
Nice, 17-20 October 1989, Published by Institute of Gas
technology, Chicago, 2-III-3: 1-23
Perry, R.H, Green, D.W. and Maloney, J.D., (eds.),
1999, “Perry Chemicals Engineering Handbook”, 7th
Edition, McGrawhill, Section 26 “Process safety”
Petersen, R.L. and Ratcliff, M.A., 1988, “Effect of
homogeneous and heterogeneous surface roughness
on HTAG dispersion”, CPP Incorporated, Colorado.
Contract for API, Draft Report CPP-87-0417
Schotte, W., 1987, “Fog formation of hydrogen fluoride
in air”, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 26: 300-306; see also
Schotte, W., “Thermodynamic model for HF formation”,
31 August 1988, Letter from Schotte to Soczek, E.I. Du
Pont de Nemours & Company, Du Pont Experimental
Station, Engineering Department, Wilmington, Delawere
19898
Selby, C.A., and Burgan, B.A., 1998, “Blast and fire
engineering for topside structures - phase 2: final
summary report”, SCI Publication No. 253, Steel
Construction Institute, UK
Sozzi, G. L. and Sutherland, W. A., 1975, “Critical flow
of saturated and sub-cooled water at high pressure”,
General Electric Co. Report No. NEDO-13418
TNO, 1997, “Methods for the calculation of physical
effects” (TNO Yellow Book), CPR14E, SDU, The Hague
Uchida, H. and Narai, H., 1966, “Discharge of saturated
water through pipes and orifices”, Proceedings 3day
International Heat Transfer Conference, ASME,
Chicago, 5: 1-12
Webber, D.M., Fanneløp, T.K. and Witlox, H.W.M.,
1999, Source terms for two-phase flow in long pipelines
following an accidental breach, International
Conference and Workshop on Modelling the
Consequences of Accidental Releases of Hazardous
Materials, CCPS, San Francisco, California, September
28 – October 1, 145-168
Witlox, H.W.M. and Holt, A., 1999, “A unified model for
jet, heavy and passive dispersion including droplet
rainout and re-evaporation”, International Conference
and Workshop on Modelling the Consequences of
Accidental Releases of Hazardous Materials, CCPS,
San Francisco, California, September 28 – October 1,
315-344
Witlox, H.W.M., Harper, M., Topalis, P. and Wilkinson,
S., 2006, “Modelling the consequence of hazardous
multi-component two-phase releases to the
atmosphere”, Hazards XIX Conference, Manchester,
250-265
Witlox, H.W.M., Harper, M., Oke, A. (DNV Software),
Bowen, P.J., Kay, P. (Cardiff University), Jamois, D.,
and Proust, C. (INERIS), “Two-phase jet releases and
droplet dispersion: scaled and large-scale experiments,
droplet-size correlation development and model
8. 8
validation”, Paper 6.3, 6
th
AMS conference on
applications of air pollution meteorology, Atlanta, USA,
17-21 January 2010
Witlox, H.W.M. and Holt, A., 2007, “Unified Dispersion
Model – Technical Reference Manual”, UDM Version
6.53 (distributed on reference CD as part of Phast 6.53
software), Det Norske Veritas, London