This document describes a model developed to predict the optimal reaction temperature of an industrial fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit riser. A pseudo-homogeneous two-dimensional model was developed using a five-lump reaction scheme. Mass transfer resistance was incorporated to improve accuracy over previous one-dimensional plug flow models. Finite difference methods were used to discretize the governing equations which were then solved using MATLAB. Simulation results identified three temperature regimes for catalyst coking. An optimum temperature range of 786K-788K and catalyst-to-oil ratio range of 4.60-4.71 were predicted to minimize coke on catalyst without reducing gasoline yield.
Investigations into Advanced Laboratory Deactivation Methods for the Selectio...Zachary Sample
This document discusses methods for deactivating fresh fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) catalyst in the laboratory to simulate commercial equilibrium catalyst performance. Commonly used methods like cyclic deactivation and cyclic propene steaming can accurately mimic plant catalyst but are time-consuming. Rapid deactivation methods have been proposed as alternatives that can also simulate commercial catalyst performance without extensive testing procedures. This study aims to assess one such rapid deactivation method and characterize catalyst samples using techniques like XRD, TPR and SEM/EDX to evaluate its ability to predict commercial FCC performance.
In order to study the WGS on an industrial scale at a low pressure, the modeling andsimulation of a WGS reactor operating at a pressure close to Patm and processing an industrial charge in the presence of a high temperature shift catalyst (Fe2O3/Cr2O3) were performed. The Profiles of the carbon monoxide conversion, temperature and pressure along the reactor were obtained. The effect of several operating parameters (inlet temperature, H2O/CO ratio) on the conversion of carbon monoxide along the reactor has been determined. The estimated catalytic mass to convert 60.5% of the carbon monoxide contained in the inlet is 170.76 t. The pressure drops in the reactor are not negligible and the maximum temperaturereached is without any harmful effect on the catalyst. The choice of an optimal inlet temperature and a high H2O/CO ratio improves the conversion of carbon monoxide.
The document discusses the design of catalyst reactors accounting for catalyst deactivation. It begins by introducing fixed bed and fluidized bed reactors. It then discusses criteria for selecting between these reactors, including catalyst deactivation behavior and reaction conditions. The document goes on to provide steps for designing catalyst reactors and single adiabatic packed bed reactors. It also discusses models for fluidized bed reactors and approaches for designing reactors to account for catalyst deactivation over time.
These slides may be used for a part of Advanced level course in Chemical Reaction Engineering. I taught this course to Masters level students covering 1.5 credit hours.
This document outlines the course contents, objectives, and topics for a Chemical Reaction Engineering course. The course will cover topics such as kinetics of homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions, reactor design including batch, mixed flow, plug flow, and catalytic reactors. Students will learn how to develop rate expressions and design industrial reactors by applying principles of thermodynamics and reaction kinetics. The objective is to provide an in-depth understanding of commonly used chemical reactor designs.
This document summarizes a lab experiment on the saponification reaction between sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate. The objectives were to determine the kinetic rate constants of the reaction at different temperatures. The apparatus, methods, theory, preliminary data and results, and conclusions are described briefly. The rate constants followed Arrhenius behavior and increased with temperature as expected.
Enhanced fluidized bed methanation over a Ni Al2O3 catalyst for production of...Pengcheng Li
This document summarizes a study that investigated the fluidization behavior and CO methanation performance of a Ni/Al2O3 catalyst in a fluidized bed reactor for producing synthetic natural gas. The researchers found that the pure Ni/Al2O3 catalyst failed to properly fluidize on its own due to particle sizes between 10 and 100 μm, but fluidization was improved by adding larger Al2O3 particles. Methanation performance in the fluidized bed reactor increased substantially with the Al2O3 addition. Temperature was found to control the methanation reaction mechanism, with surface reactions dominating at lower temperatures and external diffusion controlling at higher temperatures. Stability tests showed the fluidized bed reactor had higher CO conversion, methane selectivity
Effect of Operating Conditions on CSTR performance: an Experimental StudyIJERA Editor
In this work, Saponification reaction of ethyl acetate by sodium hydroxide is studied experimentally in a continuous stirred tank reactor at 1 atmospheric pressure. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of operating conditions on the conversion and specific rate constant. The parameters considered for analysis are temperature, feed flow rate, residence time, volume of reactor and stirrer rate. The steady state conversion of 0.45 achieved after a period of 30 minutes. Conversion decreases with increase of reactant flow rate due to decrease of residence time. The stirrer rate has a positive effect on the conversion and rate constant. Specific rate constant and conversion increase with temperature within the studied temperature range. Within the range of reactor volume selected for analysis, conversion increases with increase in reactor volume. The results obtained in this study may be helpful in maximizing the conversion of ethyl acetate saponification reaction at industrial scale in a CSTR.
Investigations into Advanced Laboratory Deactivation Methods for the Selectio...Zachary Sample
This document discusses methods for deactivating fresh fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) catalyst in the laboratory to simulate commercial equilibrium catalyst performance. Commonly used methods like cyclic deactivation and cyclic propene steaming can accurately mimic plant catalyst but are time-consuming. Rapid deactivation methods have been proposed as alternatives that can also simulate commercial catalyst performance without extensive testing procedures. This study aims to assess one such rapid deactivation method and characterize catalyst samples using techniques like XRD, TPR and SEM/EDX to evaluate its ability to predict commercial FCC performance.
In order to study the WGS on an industrial scale at a low pressure, the modeling andsimulation of a WGS reactor operating at a pressure close to Patm and processing an industrial charge in the presence of a high temperature shift catalyst (Fe2O3/Cr2O3) were performed. The Profiles of the carbon monoxide conversion, temperature and pressure along the reactor were obtained. The effect of several operating parameters (inlet temperature, H2O/CO ratio) on the conversion of carbon monoxide along the reactor has been determined. The estimated catalytic mass to convert 60.5% of the carbon monoxide contained in the inlet is 170.76 t. The pressure drops in the reactor are not negligible and the maximum temperaturereached is without any harmful effect on the catalyst. The choice of an optimal inlet temperature and a high H2O/CO ratio improves the conversion of carbon monoxide.
The document discusses the design of catalyst reactors accounting for catalyst deactivation. It begins by introducing fixed bed and fluidized bed reactors. It then discusses criteria for selecting between these reactors, including catalyst deactivation behavior and reaction conditions. The document goes on to provide steps for designing catalyst reactors and single adiabatic packed bed reactors. It also discusses models for fluidized bed reactors and approaches for designing reactors to account for catalyst deactivation over time.
These slides may be used for a part of Advanced level course in Chemical Reaction Engineering. I taught this course to Masters level students covering 1.5 credit hours.
This document outlines the course contents, objectives, and topics for a Chemical Reaction Engineering course. The course will cover topics such as kinetics of homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions, reactor design including batch, mixed flow, plug flow, and catalytic reactors. Students will learn how to develop rate expressions and design industrial reactors by applying principles of thermodynamics and reaction kinetics. The objective is to provide an in-depth understanding of commonly used chemical reactor designs.
This document summarizes a lab experiment on the saponification reaction between sodium hydroxide and ethyl acetate. The objectives were to determine the kinetic rate constants of the reaction at different temperatures. The apparatus, methods, theory, preliminary data and results, and conclusions are described briefly. The rate constants followed Arrhenius behavior and increased with temperature as expected.
Enhanced fluidized bed methanation over a Ni Al2O3 catalyst for production of...Pengcheng Li
This document summarizes a study that investigated the fluidization behavior and CO methanation performance of a Ni/Al2O3 catalyst in a fluidized bed reactor for producing synthetic natural gas. The researchers found that the pure Ni/Al2O3 catalyst failed to properly fluidize on its own due to particle sizes between 10 and 100 μm, but fluidization was improved by adding larger Al2O3 particles. Methanation performance in the fluidized bed reactor increased substantially with the Al2O3 addition. Temperature was found to control the methanation reaction mechanism, with surface reactions dominating at lower temperatures and external diffusion controlling at higher temperatures. Stability tests showed the fluidized bed reactor had higher CO conversion, methane selectivity
Effect of Operating Conditions on CSTR performance: an Experimental StudyIJERA Editor
In this work, Saponification reaction of ethyl acetate by sodium hydroxide is studied experimentally in a continuous stirred tank reactor at 1 atmospheric pressure. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of operating conditions on the conversion and specific rate constant. The parameters considered for analysis are temperature, feed flow rate, residence time, volume of reactor and stirrer rate. The steady state conversion of 0.45 achieved after a period of 30 minutes. Conversion decreases with increase of reactant flow rate due to decrease of residence time. The stirrer rate has a positive effect on the conversion and rate constant. Specific rate constant and conversion increase with temperature within the studied temperature range. Within the range of reactor volume selected for analysis, conversion increases with increase in reactor volume. The results obtained in this study may be helpful in maximizing the conversion of ethyl acetate saponification reaction at industrial scale in a CSTR.
1. The document describes a mathematical model developed to model esterification in a batch reactor coupled with pervaporation for producing ethyl acetate.
2. The model accounts for the reaction kinetics of esterification catalyzed by Amberlyst 15 resin and permeation rates of components through a polydimethylsiloxane membrane based on experimental data.
3. A parametric study using the model found that conversion increases with increasing temperature, molar ratios of reactants, and catalyst concentration, with optimal conditions being a temperature of around 343K, catalyst concentration of 10g, and 50% excess acetic acid relative to ethanol.
This document discusses reactor design and chemical kinetics. It begins by describing ideal and real reactor types, including plug flow reactors and continuous stirred-tank reactors. It then discusses factors that influence reactor cost such as vessel material and size. The document also covers kinetic models for CSTR and PFR reactors and how they are used to determine reactor size and dynamics. It discusses various effects of temperature on kinetics and equilibrium in reactors. Finally, it provides an overview of how simulators can be used to model different reactor types and reactions.
Numerical Analysis of Inlet Gas-Mixture Flow Rate Effects on Carbon Nanotube ...A Behzadmehr
The growth rate and uniformity of Carbon Nano Tubes (CNTs) based on Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
technique is investigated by using a numerical model. In this reactor, inlet gas mixture, including xylene as
carbon source and mixture of argon and hydrogen as carrier gas enters into a horizontal CVD reactor at
atmospheric pressure. Based on the gas phase and surface reactions, released carbon atoms are grown as CNTs on the iron catalysts at the reactor hot walls. The effect of inlet gas-mixture flow rate, on CNTs growth rate and its uniformity is discussed. In addition the velocity and temperature profile and also species concentrations throughout the reactor are presented.
This document discusses reactor design for multiple reactions. It begins by describing types of reactors including batch, semi-batch, and continuous. Design parameters like volume, flow rate, concentrations, kinetics, temperature, and pressure are discussed for reactor selection. Equations for mixed flow and plug flow reactor design are presented. Plug flow reactors are generally smaller than continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) for a given conversion. Methods for maximizing the desired product in parallel and series reactions include adjusting conditions like concentrations, temperatures, and choosing the proper reactor type. Multiple reactor systems with reactors in series or mixed flow reactors of different sizes can be used for high conversions that a single reactor cannot achieve.
The document describes the development of a dynamic model of an industrial packed bed multi-tubular reactor used for producing ethylene oxide. Ethylene oxide is produced through the catalytic oxidation of ethylene with oxygen over a silver-based catalyst. The model is developed using a system of non-linear partial differential equations and is benchmarked against plant data from an industrial ethylene oxide reactor. Both a heterogeneous two-phase model and a reduced homogeneous single-phase model are considered and compared against plant data.
The document contains details of the solutions to the 2017 GATE exam for chemical engineering, including 24 questions and their answers. It is a study guide published by Engineers Institute of India that provides the questions asked in section 1 of the GATE chemical engineering exam, along with the explanations and work shown to arrive at the answers. The questions cover topics such as heat transfer, thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, mass transfer, and other core concepts in chemical engineering.
This document discusses reactor design for single chemical reactions. It compares the size and performance of batch, mixed flow, and plug flow reactors. For single reactions where product distribution is fixed, plug flow reactors generally require less volume than mixed flow reactors to achieve the same conversion. The size ratio of mixed to plug flow reactors depends on the reaction order and conversion level. Connecting reactors in series improves performance by making the flow more plug-like.
IRJET- Estimation of Parameters of Kinetic Study and Arrhenius Equation for t...IRJET Journal
The document summarizes a study of the kinetics of the hydrolysis reaction between ethyl acetate and sodium hydroxide. Experiments were conducted at different temperatures to determine the reaction order, rate constants, and activation energy. The maximum conversion of sodium hydroxide was 96% at 36°C. The reaction was found to be second order with respect to sodium hydroxide. The activation energy was calculated to be 16.20 kcal/mol using the Arrhenius equation. Thermodynamic properties including the enthalpy, Gibbs free energy, and equilibrium constant were also calculated.
This document describes a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study of methane decomposition into hydrogen and solid carbon in a packed bed fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) reactor. The study used CFD modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics to simulate the decomposition reaction over time in the packed bed reactor. Results showed that increasing the reaction time from 0 to 1000 seconds increased the production of hydrogen from 0 to 42 mol/dm3 and carbon from 0 to 21 mol/dm3, while decreasing methane concentration from 50 to 29 mol/dm3, indicating that decomposition was occurring. Spatial profiles of velocity, concentration, pressure and permeability within the reactor were also determined and discussed.
Optimal Heat Exchanger Rating Models for Isothermal CSTR SO3 Hydration Using ...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
This work deals with the development of design models for heat exchanger rating in catalytic sulphur trioxide hydration process at isothermal condition exploiting the Abowei and Goodhead derived continuous adsorption tower (CAST) heat generation per unit volume equations at constant temperature. Shell and Tube heat exchanger is invoked for this studies resulting to novel design equations which were stochastically examined and found to be capable of simulating the rating performance dimensions as a function of kinetic parameters. The rating performance models were further generalized to inculcate fractional conversion functionality. The novel design models were simulation to evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient, mass flow rate of cooling fluid, tube side cross flow area and tube side film coefficient using Matlab R2007B within the operational limits of conversion degree at constant temperature. The heat exchanger is used for the removal of heat generated per reactor unit volume utilizing water as cooling fluid, enters the shell side at 25oC flowing counter currently to the tube side at exit temperature of 85oC in order to maintaining 97oC isothermal condition. The configuration of the exchanger is U–tube type and is three (3) shell and six (6) tube passes. The results of the rating dimensions showed a dependable relationship with fractional conversion at constant temperature for various reactor radius and number of tubes.
Iaetsd design and implementation of intelligentIaetsd Iaetsd
This document describes the design and implementation of intelligent controllers for a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) system. The CSTR is used to control the concentration of ethylene glycol by manipulating the concentration of ethylene oxide. Various controllers like PI, PID, fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms are analyzed for controlling the concentration. Modeling is done in MATLAB Simulink. Genetic algorithms are found to provide better concentration control compared to other controllers. The paper discusses CSTR modeling and problem formulation. Controller design methods like PID and modified PID are also covered.
Open Notebook Science talk at the 2012 ACS mcbridemj
Video of this presentation can be found here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rNGkmNTdLc. This talk was given as an oral presentation at the ACS 244th National Meeting held in Philadelphia, PA on August 20, 2012. This talk examined the advantages of being an undergraduate student in a research group using Open Notebook Science. Additionally, this talk examined how to use solubility tools to choose a recrystallization solvent and to plan a reaction synthesis.
This study used Aspen HYSYS software to simulate a suspension (slurry) process for producing polyethylene. A loop reactor model mimicked the slurry polymerization process. The effects of increasing the ethylene monomer flow rate on solvent, catalyst, co-monomer, and hydrogen flow rates were examined. The model predicted that increasing the monomer flow rate linearly increased these other process variables. It also showed that a higher monomer flow rate led to greater polyethylene production. However, the model had the limitation of not accounting for temperature and pressure effects on other operating variables.
This document describes the simulation and design of a process to recover monoethylene glycol (MEG) from effluent waste streams of a petrochemical company in Iran. Aspen Plus simulation software was used to model the process, which involves separating water, salts, and various glycols (MEG, DEG, TEG, TTEG) using a series of distillation columns. Sensitivity analyses were performed to optimize column parameters such as pressure, reflux ratio, and boilup ratio. The results showed that MEG, DEG, TEG, and TTEG could be recovered at rates of 5.01, 2.039, 0.062, and 0.089 kg/hr, respectively.
Alkylation of Diphenyl Oxide with Benzyl Alcohol over HZSM-5Ranjeet Kumar
The study investigated the alkylation of diphenyl oxide with benzyl alcohol over HZSM-5 zeolite catalyst. Experiments were conducted in a glass reactor at 120°C for 3 hours with a catalyst loading of 100kg/m3. Analysis showed the reaction produced an isomeric mixture of benzyl-diphenyl-oxide. Kinetic studies established the reaction as pseudo-first order and found the activation energy to be 26.74kJ/mol. The catalyst was determined to be reusable with a conversion decrease from fresh to first reuse.
This document discusses different types of chemical reactors, including plug flow reactors and continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR). It provides information on their design considerations, advantages, disadvantages, and equations. Plug flow reactors allow minimal back mixing and each particle has the same residence time. CSTRs ensure proper mixing through the use of an impeller and assume perfect mixing. The document also provides examples of design equations for ideal reactors and discusses factors to consider for reactor selection like yield, cost, and safety.
- The document describes models developed for a fluid catalytic cracking fluidized bed reactor using a four-lump kinetic scheme.
- The reactor is modeled as a two-phase system consisting of a bubble phase modeled as plug flow and an emulsion phase modeled as continuous stirred-tank reactor.
- Kinetic rate equations are provided for the cracking of gas oil to gasoline, light gases, and coke based on the four-lump scheme. Mass balance equations are developed for each phase and solved numerically.
Sagar Popat gave a presentation on techniques for decoding CAPTCHAs. The presentation covered an introduction to CAPTCHAs, why people try to decode them, and different methods for doing so including using optical character recognition with Python and comparing images without OCR. The goal is to break CAPTCHAs for purposes such as spamming, hacking, and bug bounty rewards. The techniques discussed include preprocessing images, using OCR engines, comparing images based on metrics like cross-correlation, and tips for developers to make CAPTCHAs more secure.
This document summarizes research on a syndrome caused by mutations in the CCDC174 gene. The syndrome is characterized by hypotonia, psychomotor delay, and abducens nerve palsy. Two families with affected individuals were studied and found to have homozygous mutations in CCDC174. Studies showed that CCDC174 interacts with EIF4A3 and is part of the exon junction complex, playing a role in early neural development. A mutation found in both families was shown to lead to depletion of the RYR1 protein in muscle and cell death in neuroblastoma cells.
Este documento presenta los resultados de un estudio sobre la determinación de los parámetros físicos, químicos y biológicos del agua del río Chonta. En la primera fase, se midieron parámetros como la temperatura, pH y turbidez del agua en el campo. Se recolectaron muestras de macroinvertebrados. Los resultados mostraron que el agua del río estaba turbia, tenía una temperatura de 16°C y un pH ácido de 7. En la segunda fase de laboratorio, se analizarán los factores biológicos como los
This curriculum vitae outlines Hermien Venter's career objective and qualifications. She has over 15 years of experience in upholstery, curtain making, soft furnishing, and interior decorating. She has owned her own interior decorating and upholstery businesses, and has worked as an interior decorator, workshop manager, and upholsterer for various employers. Hermien holds a Technikon Pretoria certificate in interior decoration and has received additional training in sewing projects and developing skills.
1. The document describes a mathematical model developed to model esterification in a batch reactor coupled with pervaporation for producing ethyl acetate.
2. The model accounts for the reaction kinetics of esterification catalyzed by Amberlyst 15 resin and permeation rates of components through a polydimethylsiloxane membrane based on experimental data.
3. A parametric study using the model found that conversion increases with increasing temperature, molar ratios of reactants, and catalyst concentration, with optimal conditions being a temperature of around 343K, catalyst concentration of 10g, and 50% excess acetic acid relative to ethanol.
This document discusses reactor design and chemical kinetics. It begins by describing ideal and real reactor types, including plug flow reactors and continuous stirred-tank reactors. It then discusses factors that influence reactor cost such as vessel material and size. The document also covers kinetic models for CSTR and PFR reactors and how they are used to determine reactor size and dynamics. It discusses various effects of temperature on kinetics and equilibrium in reactors. Finally, it provides an overview of how simulators can be used to model different reactor types and reactions.
Numerical Analysis of Inlet Gas-Mixture Flow Rate Effects on Carbon Nanotube ...A Behzadmehr
The growth rate and uniformity of Carbon Nano Tubes (CNTs) based on Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
technique is investigated by using a numerical model. In this reactor, inlet gas mixture, including xylene as
carbon source and mixture of argon and hydrogen as carrier gas enters into a horizontal CVD reactor at
atmospheric pressure. Based on the gas phase and surface reactions, released carbon atoms are grown as CNTs on the iron catalysts at the reactor hot walls. The effect of inlet gas-mixture flow rate, on CNTs growth rate and its uniformity is discussed. In addition the velocity and temperature profile and also species concentrations throughout the reactor are presented.
This document discusses reactor design for multiple reactions. It begins by describing types of reactors including batch, semi-batch, and continuous. Design parameters like volume, flow rate, concentrations, kinetics, temperature, and pressure are discussed for reactor selection. Equations for mixed flow and plug flow reactor design are presented. Plug flow reactors are generally smaller than continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) for a given conversion. Methods for maximizing the desired product in parallel and series reactions include adjusting conditions like concentrations, temperatures, and choosing the proper reactor type. Multiple reactor systems with reactors in series or mixed flow reactors of different sizes can be used for high conversions that a single reactor cannot achieve.
The document describes the development of a dynamic model of an industrial packed bed multi-tubular reactor used for producing ethylene oxide. Ethylene oxide is produced through the catalytic oxidation of ethylene with oxygen over a silver-based catalyst. The model is developed using a system of non-linear partial differential equations and is benchmarked against plant data from an industrial ethylene oxide reactor. Both a heterogeneous two-phase model and a reduced homogeneous single-phase model are considered and compared against plant data.
The document contains details of the solutions to the 2017 GATE exam for chemical engineering, including 24 questions and their answers. It is a study guide published by Engineers Institute of India that provides the questions asked in section 1 of the GATE chemical engineering exam, along with the explanations and work shown to arrive at the answers. The questions cover topics such as heat transfer, thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, mass transfer, and other core concepts in chemical engineering.
This document discusses reactor design for single chemical reactions. It compares the size and performance of batch, mixed flow, and plug flow reactors. For single reactions where product distribution is fixed, plug flow reactors generally require less volume than mixed flow reactors to achieve the same conversion. The size ratio of mixed to plug flow reactors depends on the reaction order and conversion level. Connecting reactors in series improves performance by making the flow more plug-like.
IRJET- Estimation of Parameters of Kinetic Study and Arrhenius Equation for t...IRJET Journal
The document summarizes a study of the kinetics of the hydrolysis reaction between ethyl acetate and sodium hydroxide. Experiments were conducted at different temperatures to determine the reaction order, rate constants, and activation energy. The maximum conversion of sodium hydroxide was 96% at 36°C. The reaction was found to be second order with respect to sodium hydroxide. The activation energy was calculated to be 16.20 kcal/mol using the Arrhenius equation. Thermodynamic properties including the enthalpy, Gibbs free energy, and equilibrium constant were also calculated.
This document describes a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study of methane decomposition into hydrogen and solid carbon in a packed bed fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) reactor. The study used CFD modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics to simulate the decomposition reaction over time in the packed bed reactor. Results showed that increasing the reaction time from 0 to 1000 seconds increased the production of hydrogen from 0 to 42 mol/dm3 and carbon from 0 to 21 mol/dm3, while decreasing methane concentration from 50 to 29 mol/dm3, indicating that decomposition was occurring. Spatial profiles of velocity, concentration, pressure and permeability within the reactor were also determined and discussed.
Optimal Heat Exchanger Rating Models for Isothermal CSTR SO3 Hydration Using ...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
This work deals with the development of design models for heat exchanger rating in catalytic sulphur trioxide hydration process at isothermal condition exploiting the Abowei and Goodhead derived continuous adsorption tower (CAST) heat generation per unit volume equations at constant temperature. Shell and Tube heat exchanger is invoked for this studies resulting to novel design equations which were stochastically examined and found to be capable of simulating the rating performance dimensions as a function of kinetic parameters. The rating performance models were further generalized to inculcate fractional conversion functionality. The novel design models were simulation to evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient, mass flow rate of cooling fluid, tube side cross flow area and tube side film coefficient using Matlab R2007B within the operational limits of conversion degree at constant temperature. The heat exchanger is used for the removal of heat generated per reactor unit volume utilizing water as cooling fluid, enters the shell side at 25oC flowing counter currently to the tube side at exit temperature of 85oC in order to maintaining 97oC isothermal condition. The configuration of the exchanger is U–tube type and is three (3) shell and six (6) tube passes. The results of the rating dimensions showed a dependable relationship with fractional conversion at constant temperature for various reactor radius and number of tubes.
Iaetsd design and implementation of intelligentIaetsd Iaetsd
This document describes the design and implementation of intelligent controllers for a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) system. The CSTR is used to control the concentration of ethylene glycol by manipulating the concentration of ethylene oxide. Various controllers like PI, PID, fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms are analyzed for controlling the concentration. Modeling is done in MATLAB Simulink. Genetic algorithms are found to provide better concentration control compared to other controllers. The paper discusses CSTR modeling and problem formulation. Controller design methods like PID and modified PID are also covered.
Open Notebook Science talk at the 2012 ACS mcbridemj
Video of this presentation can be found here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-rNGkmNTdLc. This talk was given as an oral presentation at the ACS 244th National Meeting held in Philadelphia, PA on August 20, 2012. This talk examined the advantages of being an undergraduate student in a research group using Open Notebook Science. Additionally, this talk examined how to use solubility tools to choose a recrystallization solvent and to plan a reaction synthesis.
This study used Aspen HYSYS software to simulate a suspension (slurry) process for producing polyethylene. A loop reactor model mimicked the slurry polymerization process. The effects of increasing the ethylene monomer flow rate on solvent, catalyst, co-monomer, and hydrogen flow rates were examined. The model predicted that increasing the monomer flow rate linearly increased these other process variables. It also showed that a higher monomer flow rate led to greater polyethylene production. However, the model had the limitation of not accounting for temperature and pressure effects on other operating variables.
This document describes the simulation and design of a process to recover monoethylene glycol (MEG) from effluent waste streams of a petrochemical company in Iran. Aspen Plus simulation software was used to model the process, which involves separating water, salts, and various glycols (MEG, DEG, TEG, TTEG) using a series of distillation columns. Sensitivity analyses were performed to optimize column parameters such as pressure, reflux ratio, and boilup ratio. The results showed that MEG, DEG, TEG, and TTEG could be recovered at rates of 5.01, 2.039, 0.062, and 0.089 kg/hr, respectively.
Alkylation of Diphenyl Oxide with Benzyl Alcohol over HZSM-5Ranjeet Kumar
The study investigated the alkylation of diphenyl oxide with benzyl alcohol over HZSM-5 zeolite catalyst. Experiments were conducted in a glass reactor at 120°C for 3 hours with a catalyst loading of 100kg/m3. Analysis showed the reaction produced an isomeric mixture of benzyl-diphenyl-oxide. Kinetic studies established the reaction as pseudo-first order and found the activation energy to be 26.74kJ/mol. The catalyst was determined to be reusable with a conversion decrease from fresh to first reuse.
This document discusses different types of chemical reactors, including plug flow reactors and continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR). It provides information on their design considerations, advantages, disadvantages, and equations. Plug flow reactors allow minimal back mixing and each particle has the same residence time. CSTRs ensure proper mixing through the use of an impeller and assume perfect mixing. The document also provides examples of design equations for ideal reactors and discusses factors to consider for reactor selection like yield, cost, and safety.
- The document describes models developed for a fluid catalytic cracking fluidized bed reactor using a four-lump kinetic scheme.
- The reactor is modeled as a two-phase system consisting of a bubble phase modeled as plug flow and an emulsion phase modeled as continuous stirred-tank reactor.
- Kinetic rate equations are provided for the cracking of gas oil to gasoline, light gases, and coke based on the four-lump scheme. Mass balance equations are developed for each phase and solved numerically.
Sagar Popat gave a presentation on techniques for decoding CAPTCHAs. The presentation covered an introduction to CAPTCHAs, why people try to decode them, and different methods for doing so including using optical character recognition with Python and comparing images without OCR. The goal is to break CAPTCHAs for purposes such as spamming, hacking, and bug bounty rewards. The techniques discussed include preprocessing images, using OCR engines, comparing images based on metrics like cross-correlation, and tips for developers to make CAPTCHAs more secure.
This document summarizes research on a syndrome caused by mutations in the CCDC174 gene. The syndrome is characterized by hypotonia, psychomotor delay, and abducens nerve palsy. Two families with affected individuals were studied and found to have homozygous mutations in CCDC174. Studies showed that CCDC174 interacts with EIF4A3 and is part of the exon junction complex, playing a role in early neural development. A mutation found in both families was shown to lead to depletion of the RYR1 protein in muscle and cell death in neuroblastoma cells.
Este documento presenta los resultados de un estudio sobre la determinación de los parámetros físicos, químicos y biológicos del agua del río Chonta. En la primera fase, se midieron parámetros como la temperatura, pH y turbidez del agua en el campo. Se recolectaron muestras de macroinvertebrados. Los resultados mostraron que el agua del río estaba turbia, tenía una temperatura de 16°C y un pH ácido de 7. En la segunda fase de laboratorio, se analizarán los factores biológicos como los
This curriculum vitae outlines Hermien Venter's career objective and qualifications. She has over 15 years of experience in upholstery, curtain making, soft furnishing, and interior decorating. She has owned her own interior decorating and upholstery businesses, and has worked as an interior decorator, workshop manager, and upholsterer for various employers. Hermien holds a Technikon Pretoria certificate in interior decoration and has received additional training in sewing projects and developing skills.
Sameer Kamble is seeking a position as an electrical engineer with over 4 years of experience working on metro and monorail projects in India. He has experience installing, testing, commissioning, operating and maintaining 22kV auxiliary substations and 750V DC traction systems. He is looking to utilize his skills and education to contribute to a dynamic organization.
O documento discute a aprendizagem de alunos com deficiência intelectual, enfatizando que a inteligência é algo construído através da adaptação. Também descreve as atribuições do professor itinerante, como contribuir para a inclusão de alunos com deficiência e mediar suas relações com a escola, família e comunidade.
A empresa anunciou um novo produto que combina hardware e software para fornecer uma solução completa para clientes. O produto oferece recursos avançados de inteligência artificial e aprendizado de máquina para ajudar os usuários a automatizar tarefas complexas. Analistas acreditam que o produto pode ser um sucesso comercial se for fácil de usar e entregar resultados precisos como prometido.
La maqueta de_tren_mas_grande_del_mundoRegina Franco
La Miniature Wunderland en Hamburgo, Alemania es la maqueta de tren más grande del mundo, actualmente midiendo 1,150 m2 pero planeando alcanzar 1,800 m2 para el 2014. Los hermanos Frederick y Gerrit Braun comenzaron a construirla en el 2000 e incluirá 6 regiones detalladas como América, Suiza, Escandinavia, Alemania y los Alpes austriacos con cientos de trenes, miles de vagones, figuras y edificios iluminados controlados por un sofisticado sistema de computación.
La Sagrada Familia es una basílica en construcción en Barcelona diseñada por Antoni Gaudí. Gaudí asumió el proyecto en 1882 y cambió radicalmente los planos originales. El templo constará de 18 torres dedicadas a los apóstoles y evangelistas. Aunque la obra aún no está terminada, ya es una atracción turística mundial y se espera que esté completa dentro de 30 años.
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IISTE_CPER_Journal19086-23744-1-PB
1. Chemical and Process Engineering Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-7467 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0913 (Online)
Vol.30, 2015
34
Prediction of the Optimal Reaction Temperature of the Riser of
an Industrial Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) Unit
Omotola F. Olanrewaju1*
Paul C. Okonkwo2
Benjamin O. Aderemi2
1. National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI), Idu Industrial Area, Abuja,
Nigeria.
2. Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University (ABU),
Kaduna, Nigeria.
*E-mail of the corresponding author: sonictreasure@gmail.com
Abstract
A pseudo homogeneous two-dimensional (2D) model of an industrial Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) riser is
here presented. The FCC riser models of previous researchers were mostly based on the assumption of negligible
mass transfer resistance and 1D plug flow. These assumptions undermine the accuracy of the models by over-
predicting the optimum residence time of the riser. In this work the coke content of FCC catalyst was modeled as
a function of the reactor temperature with the aim of predicting the operating conditions that will reduce coke on
catalyst without undermining the yield of the key product (gasoline). Mass transfer resistance was incorporated
in the reactor model to enhance the accuracy of the results. Catalyst deactivation was modeled based on the
exponential decay function. The mass transfer coefficient and the catalyst effectiveness factor were estimated
from empirical correlations obtained from literature. Data used for the simulation were sourced from an existing
plant (KRPC) as well as from open literature. Finite difference numerical scheme was used to discretise the
model governing equation. At the end of the investigation, three different operating temperature regimes were
identified from the simulated results for the coking of FCC catalyst (low temperature, optimal temperature and
high temperature regimes). An optimum operating temperature range of 786K-788K and an optimum catalyst-to-
oil ratio (COR) range of 4.60-4.71 were predicted for the riser.
Keywords: FCC; Finite difference, Mass transfer resistance, Catalyst deactivation, Riser models.
1. Introduction
Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) is one of the most profitable processes in oil refineries. It is the major producer
of gasoline in refineries and as such it is sometimes referred to as the heart of the refinery. FCC converts vacuum
gas oils (VGO) and heavy feed stocks (molecular weight > 250) from other refinery operations into high octane
gasoline, light fuel oils and gases (Fernandes et al. 2003).
FCC unit comprises mainly of the riser, the regenerator and the main fractionators. Among the major process
variables of FCC (temperature, pressure and catalyst-to-oil ratio), the reactor temperature is the most sensitive
variable that affects feed conversion, product yield and catalyst coking. The optimum reaction temperature in
FCC is such that guarantees high yield of the desired product without quenching the reactions or causing over-
cracking of the key product.
Fernandes et al. (2003), used a 6-lump, 1D model to simulate the riser of an industrial FCCU. Their model
predicted a gasoline yield of 48%. The temperature, gas and solid phase velocity profiles were also predicted by
the authors. However, the assumption of 1D plug flow and negligible mass transfer resistance by the authors
oversimplified their models thereby undermining the accuracy of the predictions. Ahari et al. (2008) used a 4-
lump, 1D model in their investigation. Their model predicted the temperature drop along the riser and they
predicted a gasoline yield of 45%. The major limitation of their model was the assumption of negligible
dispersion. The authors’ work did not predict optimum parameters for the process. A 5-lump reaction scheme
was used by Alsabei (2011). The author also based his investigation on negligible dispersion which contradicts
the basic principles of heterogeneous catalysis especially for porous catalysts such as the FCC Zeolite catalyst. A
4-lump, 1D scheme was also used by Heydari et al. (2010) to model an industrial riser. Their model was also
oversimplified and they did not predict optimum reaction temperature.
Models of higher dimensionality have also been used by other authors. Souza et al. (2007) used a 2D
hydrodynamic, 6-lump model to simulate an industrial riser. They predicted a gasoline yield of 48%. Ahsan
(2013) used a 2D, 4-lump riser model to predict gasoline yield and temperature profile of FCC. The author
predicted a gasoline yield of 40%. Novia et al. (2006) used a 3D riser model to predict the hydrodynamic effect
on the operation of the riser. They predicted the flow pattern of solid, the velocity vector of solid phases and the
solid volume fraction. Gupta (2006) and Lopes et al. (2012) used 3D models in their investigations. Gupta
(2006) used a mechanistic approach involving 50 lumps (pseudo species) to model an industrial FCCU. Lopes et
2. Chemical and Process Engineering Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-7467 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0913 (Online)
Vol.30, 2015
35
al. (2012) on the other hand, used a 4-lump reaction scheme to investigate the effects of various exit
configurations of the riser on the hydrodynamics of the reactor as well as the yield of gasoline. They found that
the T-shape exit configuration enhanced the yield of gasoline owing to enhanced solid (catalyst) reflux. In all the
models aforementioned, the authors did not attempt to predict the optimal reaction temperature for FCCU riser.
A 2D quasi-steady state model of an industrial riser is here presented. 2D models approximate reality better
because wall effects are accounted for unlike in 1D models. A 2D model requires less computational time and
memory than is required for a 3D model. A five-lump reaction scheme was used to model the FCC reactions.
The five-lump model that was used in this work accounted for coking unlike the over-simplified 3-lump reaction
scheme. The five-lump model is also not as unwieldy to solve as the models that have larger number of lumps.
This investigation has also advanced the works of the previous researchers in this field by simulating the catalyst
coke content with a view to predicting the operating conditions that will minimize the coking of FCC catalyst
thereby reducing the cost of regeneration of the coked catalyst. Finite difference numerical scheme was used to
discretise the governing equations and a code was written in MATLAB to solve the equations. The model results
were validated with data from an existing plant. Thereafter, the model was used to simulate coke on catalyst. The
optimum reaction temperature was predicted from the simulation results.
2. Materials and Methodology
The FCCU reactor was modeled in this work using MATLAB (R2009a) on a Compaq HP CQ61 laptop.
The following assumptions were made in the development of the model:
1. Pseudo homogenous two-dimensional transport with axial and radial gradients. (In reality the riser is a 3D
reactor. Simplifying the geometry to 1D is tantamount to predicting products yield just along the axis of the
reactor. However turbulent the flow in the riser may be, a 1D model cannot adequately represent the entire
geometry of the reactor because it does not account for wall effects).
2. The catalyst and gas are at thermal equilibrium
3. Hydrocarbon feed comes into contact with the hot catalyst coming from the regenerator and instantly
vaporizes Gupta (2006).
4. There is no heat loss from the riser, the temperature of the reaction mixture falls only because of the
endothermicity of the cracking reactions Gupta (2006). (The inner wall of the riser is known to be lined with
refractory material.)
5. The riser dynamic is fast enough to justify a quasi-steady state model.
Figure 1 depicts the five-lump reaction scheme that was used in this investigation.
3. Chemical and Process Engineering Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-7467 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0913 (Online)
Vol.30, 2015
36
Figure 1. Five-lump model (Den Hollander et al. 2003)
In Figure 1, kj is the rate constant of the jth reaction in s-1
where j=1, 2, …, 8.
2.1 Model rate equation
In the five-lump model given in Figure 1, the eight reactions of the model are taken to follow first order kinetics
as follows (mass transfer resistance taken into consideration):
𝑟𝑗 =
𝑎𝑐𝑖
(
1
𝑘 𝑔
+ (
1
𝜂𝑘𝑗
))
𝑗
= 1, … ,8 (1)
𝑎 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑘 𝑑 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑒) (2)
𝑘 𝑑 = 8.2 (Den Hollander et al. 2003)
𝜂 =
3
𝜑
(
1
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝜑
−
1
𝜑
) (3)
𝜑 = 𝑅 (
𝑘𝑗
𝐷𝑒
)
1
2
(4)
𝑐𝑖 = species concentration (weight fraction), 𝑘 𝑔 = mass transfer coefficient of reactant in m/s, 𝜂 = particle
effectiveness factor, 𝑘𝑗 =reaction rate constant in s-1
, 𝜑 = Thiele modulus and 𝐷𝑒 = effective diffusivity in m/s2
.
Equation (1) is the model rate equation which incorporates mass transfer resistance terms, 𝑘 𝑔and 𝜂. Equation (1)
reverts to the classical first order rate equation when 1 𝑘 𝑔⁄ = 0, 𝜂 = 1. The particle effectiveness factor, 𝜂
expressed by Equation (3) is the ratio of the reaction rate when there is diffusion resistance to the rate when there
is no diffusion resistance. It is a direct measure of the extent to which diffusion resistance reduces the rate of
chemical reactions in heterogeneous catalysis and it is a function of Thiele modulus. Thiele modulus, 𝜑 is the
ratio of intrinsic reaction rate to diffusion rate and as such Equation (4) provides a yardstick for determining the
rate determining step in heterogeneous catalysis. Equation (4) holds for spherical particles assumed in this work.
The basic parameters to be determined in Equations (1) to (4) are 𝐷𝑒 and 𝑘 𝑔. 𝐷𝑒 was estimated from empirical
correlations in literature (Missen et al. 1999) while 𝑘 𝑔 was estimated from Sherwood number for gases
(Geankoplis 2011).
4. Chemical and Process Engineering Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-7467 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0913 (Online)
Vol.30, 2015
37
2.2 Riser model equations
Figure 2 depicts the 2D riser while the control volume used in deriving the model equations from Conservation
laws is shown in Figure 3 (Missen et al. 1999).
Figure 2. 2D riser reactor (Missen et al. 1999)
Figure 3. Control volume (Missen et al. 1999)
2.2.1 Continuity equation
The component continuity equation for the model is as given below.
𝐷𝑧𝑖
𝜕2
𝑐𝑖
𝜕𝑧2
+ 𝐷𝑟𝑖 (
𝜕2
𝑐𝑖
𝜕𝑟2
+
1
𝑟
𝜕𝑐𝑖
𝜕𝑟
) −
𝜕(𝑢𝑐𝑖)
𝜕𝑧
− 𝜌 𝐵(−𝑟𝑖)
= 0 (5)
Where
𝑢
=
𝑞
𝐴 𝑐
, 𝑚3(𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑)𝑠−1
𝑚2(𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙) (6)
𝑞 is the volumetric flow rate of the gas through interparticle bed voidage, 𝑚3(𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑)𝑠−1
, 𝐷𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑟 are
effective diffusivities in 𝑚3(𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑)𝑚−1(𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙)𝑠−1
, (−𝑟𝑖) is in 𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑘𝑔−1
(𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑡) 𝑠−1
.
2.2.2 Riser hydrodynamic model
The numerical value of the catalyst slip factor (the ratio of the gas interstitial velocity to the average particle
velocity) can be predicted from Equation (7) (Ahari et al. 2008):
5. Chemical and Process Engineering Research www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-7467 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0913 (Online)
Vol.30, 2015
38
𝜓 =
𝑢0
𝜀𝑣 𝑝
= 1 +
5.6
𝐹𝑟
+ 0.47𝐹𝑟𝑡
0.47
(7)
𝐹𝑟 = Froude number and 𝐹𝑟t = Froude number at terminal velocity.
𝐹𝑟
=
𝑢0
(𝑔𝐷)0.5
(8)
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity (m2
/s).
The average particle velocity in the riser, 𝑣 𝑝 is given by Equation (9).
𝑣 𝑝
=
𝐺𝑠
𝜌𝑠(1 − 𝜀)
(9)
𝐺𝑠 is the catalyst mass flux.
The expression for the average voidage in terms of the solid mass flux, superficial gas velocity, riser diameter
and catalyst physical properties was derived from Equations (7) and (9). Equation (10) gives the average voidage
of the reactor.
𝜀
= 1
−
𝐺𝑠 𝜓
𝑢0 𝜌𝑠 + 𝐺𝑠 𝜓
(10)
2.2.3 Energy balance
The model energy balance, Equation (11) is given below.
𝑘 𝑧
𝜕2
𝑇
𝜕𝑧2
+ 𝑘 𝑟 (
𝜕2
𝑇
𝜕𝑟2
+
1
𝑟
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑟
) − 𝐺𝑠 𝑐 𝑝
𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑧
+ 𝜌 𝐵 ∑(−𝑟𝑖)(−Δ𝐻 𝑅𝑖)
8
𝑖=1
= 0 (11)
Where
𝑘 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 𝑟 are the effective thermal conductivities.
The coupling between the riser and the regenerator is expressed in the model by Equation (12).
𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑡 𝑐 𝑝𝑐𝑎𝑡(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑡) + 𝐹𝑓 𝑐 𝑝𝑓𝑙(𝑇𝑣𝑎𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓) + 𝐹𝑓 𝑐 𝑝𝑓𝑣(𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑣𝑎𝑝) + 𝐹𝑓ΔHvap
= 0 (12)
The governing equations, Equations (5) and (11) were expressed in a general, normalized form as follows:
𝛼 (
𝜕2
𝜎
𝜕𝑟∗2 +
1
𝑟∗
𝜕𝜎
𝜕𝑟∗
) + 𝛽
𝜕2
𝜎
𝜕𝑧∗2 + 𝛾
𝜕𝜎
𝜕𝑧∗
+ 𝜆(−𝑟𝑖)
= 0 (13)
𝜎 =
𝑐𝑖
𝑐0
⁄ 𝑜𝑟 𝑇
𝑇0
⁄ , 𝑟∗
= 𝑟
𝑅⁄ , 𝑧∗
= 𝑧
𝐻⁄
The coefficients in Equation (13) are given by the following expressions:
𝛼1 = 𝛼2
= 1
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𝛽1 =
𝑅2
𝐷𝑧
𝐻2 𝐷𝑟
,
𝛽2 =
𝑅2
𝑘 𝑧
𝐻2 𝑘 𝑟
𝛾1 =
−𝑈𝑅2
𝐻𝐷𝑟
,
𝛾2 =
−𝐺𝑐 𝑝 𝑅2
𝐻𝑘 𝑟
𝜆1 =
𝑅2
𝜌 𝐵
𝐷𝑟 𝑐0
,
𝜆2 =
𝑅2
𝜌 𝐵
𝑘 𝑟 𝑇0
(14)
Subscripts 1 and 2 in the coefficients in Equation (14) correspond to the continuity equation and energy balance
respectively.
Boundary conditions:
Equation (15) gives the boundary conditions that were used to solve the riser model equation. The model
variables were normalized. Hence, at the inlet of the reactor feed stock concentration as well as the reactor
temperature is unity. The concentration of each of the products at the inlet (z*
=0) is equal to zero since no
product is present in the feed stock at the inlet of the reactor.
@ 𝑧∗
= 0, 0 < 𝑟∗
< 1 (𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡): 𝜎𝑣𝑔𝑜 = 𝜎 𝑇 = 1, 𝜎𝑙𝑐𝑜 = 𝜎𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 𝜎𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 0
@ 𝑧∗
= 1, 0 < 𝑟∗
< 1 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡):
𝜕𝜎
𝜕𝑧∗ = 0
@ 𝑟∗
= 0, 0 < 𝑧∗
< 1:
𝜕𝜎
𝜕𝑟∗ = 0 (𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦)
@
𝑟∗
= 1, 0 < 𝑧∗
< 1:
𝜕𝜎
𝜕𝑟∗ =
0 (15)
The governing equation, Equation (13) was solved to predict the yield of products. Finite difference numerical
scheme was used to discretise Equation (13). A 20x20 grid was used to discretise the second-order governing
equation; Equation (13). The discretised equation was expressed in terms of the six variables that were predicted
in this work (concentrations of the five species and the riser temperature). A code was written in MATLAB to
solve the six algebraic equations that resulted. Data obtained from open literature and from an existing plant
(KRPC) were used to validate the model results. Thereafter, catalyst coke content was simulated to predict the
coke content of the FCC catalyst for a selected reactor temperature range. The optimum temperature range for
the fluid catalytic cracking of VGO was predicted from the results obtained.
2.3 Model data
The data used for the simulation are as given in Tables 1-5
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Table 1. Kinetic constants for five-lump model (Den Hollander et al. 2003)
Reaction number k (s-1
)
1 1.90
2 7.50
3 1.50
4 0.00
5 1.00
6 0.30
7 0.21
8 0.50
Table 2. Enthalpies of cracking (Ahari et al. 2008)
S/N Cracking reaction ΔH(kJ/kg)
1 VGO to LCO 80
2 VGO to gasoline 195
3 VGO to gas 670
4 LCO to gas -
5 LCO to gasoline 180
6 Gasoline to gas 530
7 VGO to coke 745
8 LCO to coke 600
Table 3. Molecular weights and heat capacities (Ahari et al. 2008)
S/N Species Molecular weight (kg/kmol) Cp (kJ/kg.K)
1 VGO 333.0 2.67 (liquid), 3.30 (gas)
2 LCO 300.0 3.30
3 Gasoline 106.7 3.30
4 Gas 40.0 3.30
5 Coke 14.4 1.087
Table 4. Gas oil properties
Property Value Source
Specific gravity 0.89-0.93 Gupta (2006)
Viscosity 1.4x10-5
N.s/m2
(Ahari et al. 2008)
Vaporization temperature 698K (Ahari et al. 2008)
Enthalpy of vaporization 190kJ/kg (Ahari et al. 2008)
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Table 5. Model parameters (Source: Plant data)
S/N Parameter Value
1 Reactor inlet temperature, T0 (K) 791
2 Feed inlet temperature, Tf (K) 613
3 Catalyst inlet temperature, Tcat (K) 927
4 Specific heat capacity (liquid feed), cpfl (J/kg-K) 2.67e3 (Ahari et al. 2008)
5 Specific heat capacity (vapour feed), cpvf (J/kg-K) 3.30e3 (Ahari et al. 2008)
6 Specific heat capacity (catalyst), cpcat (J/kg-K) 1.09e3 (Ahari et al. 2008)
7 Feed vaporization temperature, Tvap (K) 698
8 Enthalpy of vaporization, delHvap (J/kg) 190e3 (Ahari et al. 2008)
9 Density (solid catalyst), 𝜌𝑠 (kg/m3
) 1250
10 Catalyst velocity, 𝑈𝑐 (m/s) 5 (Gupta 2006)
11 Gas superficial velocity, U (m/s) 18
12 Slip factor, psi 2
13 Feed flow rate, Ff (kg/s) 35.5
14 Riser diameter, DR (m) 1.146
15 Riser height, H (m) 25
16 Pore diameter, Pd (m) 2.00e-9
17 Particle diameter, Dp (m) 60e-6
18 Gas average density 𝜌 𝑔 (kg/m3
) 0.92
19 Gas average viscosity 𝜇 𝑔 (Pa.s-1
) 1.40e-5 (Ahari et al. 2008)
20 Riser pressure, P (atm) 2.94
21 Particle tortuosity, 𝜏 𝑝 7 (Missen et al. 1999)
3. Results and discussion
The results obtained at the end of the investigation were presented as shown in Figures 4, 5 and 6. The predicted
yields of LCO, gasoline, gas and coke as depicted in Figure 4 are 15.54wt%, 49.70wt%, 18.01wt% and 4.90wt%
respectively. These values compare favorably well with plant data (Table 5 referred) having percentage deviation
value of <5% for all components.
Figure 4. FCC products concentration (wt %) along riser height
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Figure 5 presents the predicted conversion of VGO as a function of reactor height. A conversion of 79.28% was
predicted by the model.
Figure 5. Feedstock (VGO) conversion along the height of the riser
Table 5. Validation of model results with plant data
Species Conv./Yield, wt% (Plant) Conv./Yield, wt% (Model) % Deviation from Plant
data
VGO 80.00 79.28 0.90
LCO 15.15 15.54 2.57
Gasoline 50.00 49.70 0.60
Gas 17.88 18.01 0.73
Coke 5.08 4.90 3.54
Coke on catalyst was simulated using the validated model. The result was presented as a plot of catalyst coke
content as a function of reactor temperature as shown in Figure 6.
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Figure 6. Model result for simulation of FCC catalyst coking
Three critical temperature regimes were identified from the plot in Figure 6. These are:
i. Low operating temperature regime (T<786K): If the riser is operated in this regime (lower region of the
graph), the reactions will quench. Hence, operation in this regime is not advisable.
ii. Optimal operating temperature regime (786K<T<788K): In this temperature range, COR and catalyst
coke content profiles taper towards each other as shown in Figure 6. This is the regime of optimal riser
operation (without excessive coking).
iii. High operating temperature regime (T>788K): In this temperature zone, the two curves diverge from each
other again symbolizing excessive coking of the catalyst. Unit operation in this temperature range is also
not advisable because it leads to excessive coking and gas production at the expense of the most
economical product (gasoline).
4. Conclusions
A 2D pseudo-homogeneous reactor model with a five-lump reaction scheme was used to model the reactions that
occur in Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) riser. Mass transfer resistance was incorporated in the model which
resulted in the improvement of the accuracy of the model predictions from 89.46% to 98.33% (corresponding to
49.70 wt% gasoline from the present model). Hence, mass transfer resistance plays a significant role in FCC
reactions and as such it should not be neglected in the modeling of FCCU riser.
The predicted yield of gasoline by the model here presented is 49.70% with VGO conversion of 79.28% and a
coke yield of 4.90% (the degree of accuracy of the model predictions being 98.33%). The model results obtained
in this work compare favorably well with plant design data (50% gasoline, 80% VGO conversion and 5% coke).
The coking of the FCC catalyst was also simulated for temperatures ranging from 779K to 791K. It can be
inferred from the results of this investigation that an operating temperature range of 786K<T<788K is optimal
for FCC. The predicted optimal temperature range corresponds to an optimal catalyst-to-oil ratio (COR) of 4.60-
4.71. It is noted that operating an FCC riser within the optimum temperature range has the advantages of reduced
catalyst coking rate and less gas production from gasoline over-cracking. Coke is a by-product of FCC; it is less
valuable than the other products. It is also expensive to burn it off the catalyst in order to regenerate the catalyst.
Gas, on the other hand, is less valuable than gasoline and it is also expensive to compress. Thus, operating the
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riser within the optimal temperature range would increase plant profitability by minimizing the yield of coke and
gas.
Nomenclature
a Catalyst activity for non-coking reactions
𝑐𝑖 Species concentration (weight fraction)
𝑐 𝑝 Specific heat capacity (J/kg-K)
𝑑 𝐴𝐵 Collision diameter (m)
𝐷𝐴𝐵 Molecular diffusivity (m/s2
)
𝐷𝑒 Effective diffusivity (m/s2
)
𝐷𝑘 Knudsen diffusivity (m/s2
)
𝐷 𝑝 Particle diameter (m)
𝐷∗
Overall diffusivity (m/s2
)
𝐹𝑖 Flow rate of species 𝑖 (kg/s)
𝐺𝑠 Catalyst mass flux (kg/m2
.s)
Δ𝐻 𝑅𝑖 Enthalpy of cracking of species 𝑖 (kJ/kg)
ΔHvap Enthalpy of vaporization (kJ/kg)
P Pressure (atm)
𝑟𝑒 Average pore radius (m)
𝑟𝑖 Species reaction rate (kg species (kg catalyst)-1
s-1
)
k Reaction rate constant (s-1
)
𝑘 𝑟, 𝑘 𝑧 Effective thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
𝑘 𝑔 Mass transfer coefficient (m/s)
t Time (s)
X Conversion
Mi Molecular weight species 𝑖 (kg/kmol)
m Node number in the horizontal direction
T Temperature (K)
R Radius (m)
∆𝑟 Radial spatial interval (m)
n Node number in the vertical direction
𝑁𝐴 Molar flux (kmol/m2
.s)
𝑁𝑅𝑒 Particle Reynolds number
𝑁𝑠𝑐 Schmidt number
𝑁𝑠ℎ Sherwood number
𝑁𝑟 Number of divisions in radial direction
𝑁𝑧 Number of divisions in axial direction
V Reactor volume (m3
)
𝜐𝑖𝑗 Stoichiometric coefficient
𝑣 𝑝 Average particle velocity (m/s)
H Reactor height (m)
u Superficial velocity (m/s)
q Volumetric flow rate (m3
/s)
Ac Cross-sectional area (m2
)
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Fr Froude number
∆𝑧 Axial spatial interval (m)
Greek letters:
𝛼′
Decay function rate constant
𝛼 Normalized parameter
𝛽 Normalized parameter
𝛾 Normalized parameter
𝛿 Decay function constant
𝜀 Porosity
𝜂 Particle effectiveness factor
𝜂0 Particle overall effectiveness factor
𝜆 Normalized parameter
𝜇 Viscosity (Pa.s-1
)
𝜋 Pi
𝜑 Thiele modulus
𝜓 Slip factor
𝜌 Density (kg/m3
)
𝜎 Normalized variable
𝜏 Tortuosity
Ω 𝐷 Collision integral
Subscripts:
𝑖 Species number
𝑗 Reaction number
Abbreviations:
KRPC Kaduna Refinery & Petrochemicals Company Ltd
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