This document discusses research methods and the scientific research process. It defines research as the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources to establish facts and reach new conclusions. The scientific method involves identifying a problem, reviewing literature, clarifying the problem, defining terms, identifying a population, developing an instrumentation plan, collecting and analyzing data. There are two main approaches to research - inductive, which involves collecting data and developing a theory, and deductive, which starts with a theory and tests it with data. Research can be qualitative, involving small sample sizes, or quantitative, involving large sample surveys. Descriptive research aims to depict participants accurately.

1.  What is research?
 Research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order
to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
 In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of
data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.
 What is scientific method of research?
 The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring
new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.
 Systematic done or acting according to a fixed plan or system methodical.
 This can help inform what we might want to know from further research and how we
might undertake this research.
 Controlled scientific research inquray test relation between two or more than two
variables by controlling the propectual effect.
 Empirical and critical means that scientific inqury is based on certain observated
facts,it does not belives in any methaphysical explation.
 Inductive approach :
 In an inductive approach to research, a researcher begins by collecting data that is
relevant to his or her topic of interest. Once a substantial amount of data have been
collected, the researcher will then take a breather from data collection, stepping back to
get a bird’s eye view of her data. At this stage, the researcher looks for patterns in the
data, working to develop a theory that could explain those patterns. Thus when
researchers take an inductive approach, they start with a set of observations and then they
move from those particular experiences to a more general set of pro positions about those
experiences.
deductive approach
deductive approach take the steps described earlier for inductive research and reverse their
order. They start with a social theory that they find compelling and then test its implications with
data. That is, they move from a more general level to a more specific one. A deductive approach
to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation.

2.  Characteristics of the Scientific Method
1. Scientific research is public: Scientific advancement depends on freely available
information. A researcher, especially in the academic sector, cannot plead private knowledge,
methods, or data in arguing for the accuracy of his or her findings; scientific research
information must be freely communicated from one researcher to another.
2. Science is objective: Science tries to rule out eccentricities of judgment by researchers.
When a study is undertaken, explicit rules and procedures are constructed and the researcher is
bound to follow them, letting the chips fall where they may. Rules for classifying behavior are
used so that two or more independent observers can classify particular patterns of behavior in the
same manner.
3. Science is empirical: Researchers are concerned with a world that is knowable and
potentially measurable. (Empiricism is derived from the Greek word for
"experience"). They must be able to perceive and classify what they study and to
reject metaphysical and nonsensical explanations of events. For example, a
newspaper publisher's claim that declining subscription rates are "God's will" would
be rejected by scientists — such a statement cannot be perceived, classified, or
measured.
4. Science is systematic and cumulative: No single research study stands alone, nor
does it rise or fall by itself. Astute researchers always utilize previous studies as
building blocks for their own work. One of the first steps taken in conducting
research is to review the available scientific literature on the topic so that the current
study will draw on the heritage of past research (Chapter 2). This review is valuable
for identifying problem areas and important factors that might be relevant to the
current study (see Cat-tell, 1966).
Science is predictive. Science is concerned with relating the present to the future. In fact,
scientists strive to develop theories because, for one reason, they are useful in predicting
behavior. A theory's adequacy lies in its ability to predict a phenomenon or event successfully. If
a theory suggests predictions that are not borne out by data analysis, that theory must be
carefully reexamined and perhaps discarded. Conversely, if a theory generates predictions that
are supported by the data, that theory can be used to make predictions in other situations.
 Steps of scientific research
Step 1:Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research
problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information
that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the

3. example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity, which is a
local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the study.
Step 2: Reviewthe Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research
problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of
literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how
these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area costs
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the
study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained
through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research
project.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study.
Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To
minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically
define them for the study..
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific group of
people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or females, people
living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group
Step 6: Developthe Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves
as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how, when, and
where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is composed o of
numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this text. In the obesity
study, the researcher has decided to have the children participate in a walking program for six
months.
Step 7: Collect Data
. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through
observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data
on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of
days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research

4. question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will
be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of this
analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions.
 Elements of research
 2. Concepts, Constructs, Variables, and Measurement
 Concepts and Constructs
 Concepts are mental representations and are typically based on experience
 concepts can be of real phenomena (dogs, clouds, pain)
 concepts can be of agree-upon phenomena (truth, beauty, justice, prejudice, value,
etc.)
 Three classes of things can be measured
 direct observables (height, weight, color, etc.)
 indirect observables (questionnaires provide information on gender, age, income,
etc.)
 constructs (theoretical creations that are based on observations but which cannot be
seen either directly or indirectly; things such as IQ, Leisure Satisfaction,
Environmental Values, etc., are constructs
 Variables and Measurement
 Measurement is the assignment of symbols to observable phenomena.
 There are two kinds of phenomena
 Constants
 Variables
 Concepts or constructs must be free to vary if they are to be variables; otherwise
they are constants
 There are 3 ways of measuring things:
 counting
 ordering
 classifying
 Before variables can be measured they must be defined. Types of definitions:
 Theoretical: the words used in a theory; basically dictionary or common use
 Operational: a definition that explains how the variable is to be measured
 Operational definition: assigns a meaning to a concept or variable by specifying
the operations needed to measure it
 Types of operational definitions
 directly measured: IQ, weight, attitude
 experimental: the details of how subjects are treated differently, such as:
Aggressive behavior= banging toys, other children; frustration = what happens
when children are in a room with toys they cannot reach.
 Independent and Dependent variables (except purely descriptive research)
 All research (except descriptive studies) must have at least two variables
 one can be IV and the other DV

5.  in symmetrical relationships, the question of which is independent and which is
dependent is moot
 Having an IV allows you to assume a cause-effect relationship: changes in the IV
result in changes in the DV
 If you cannot posit a cause-effect relationship, then you essentially have two IV's
(the level/score of each is independent of the other [although both may depend on
some other variable(s)])
o Having an IV allows more control and better inference about what is going on,
especially when you have an active IV.
 Active and Attribute Independent Variables
o attribute: level or score of the variable is brought to the experiment by the subject,
usually as a natural characteristic such as sex, age, etc.
o active: the level of the IV is manipulated by the experimenter
 Intervening variables: uncontrolled or unobserved variables that may account for
variation in the DV (also known as extraneous variables)
 Control variables: any variable that may affect DV should be controlled; that is, measured
and accounted for statistically or held constant (age, gender, socioeconomic status, etc.,
could be control variables)
Measurement levels of variables
 Nominal (qualitative)
o naming/classifying
o no mathematical operations possible (except counting)
 Ordinal (qualitative, but sometimes used quantitatively)
o ordered on some dimension
o Boolean operations possible
 Interval (quantitative)
o ordered with equal intervals
o addition, subtraction, and Boolean operations
 Ratio (quantitative)
o ordered, equal intervals, absolute and meaningful zero
o all mathematical operations possible
 kinds of research
kinds by philosophy there are two kinds of research.
o Qualitative research
o Quantitative research
o Qualitative research is designed to reveal a target audience’s range of behavior and the
perceptions that drive it with reference to specific topics or issues. It uses in-depth studies

6. of small groups of people to guide and support the construction of hypotheses. The
results of qualitative research are descriptive rather than predictive.
o Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences: sociology,
anthropology and psychology. Today, qualitative methods in the field of marketing
reesearch include in-depth interviews with individuals, group discussions (from two to
ten participants is typical); diary and journal exercises; and in-context observations.
Sessions may be conducted in person, by telephone, via videoconferencing and via the
Internet.
o Quantitative research including surveys and customer questionnaires — can help small
firms to improve their products and services by enabling them to make informed
decisions
o Quantitative research is about asking people for their opinions in a structured way so that
you can produce hard facts and statistics to guide you. To get reliable statistical results,
it’s important to survey people in fairly large numbers and to make sure they are a
representative sample of your target market.
Kinds of research by purpose
o Basie research
o Applied research
Basic research is another type of research, and it is driven purely by curiosity and a
desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the
real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the world around us. So the real
difference between the two types of research is what they will be used for. Will the research be
used to help us understand a real world problem and solve it, or will the research further our
general information?
Applied research is one type of research that is used to answer a specific question that has direct
applications to the world. This is the type of research that solves a problem. We will look at an
example later. Most people like to study in their bedroom, laying on their bed in some weird
posture. They collect all their notes and spread them haphazardly across the bed. Just reading is
boring, so they may have the radio on. Some people have both the radio and the television on.
Then people have to talk to their friends so their phone isn't far off. And pets are usually
somewhere in the paperwork. However, research has found that a quiet room, without music,
animals or television improves concentration.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Our professional historians locate, analyze, interpret, and present historical documentation for a
wide range of clients, including corporations, government agencies, attorneys, developers, and
private citizens.

7. We conduct research across the country on a multitude of historical topics and have developed a
deep familiarity with the holdings of the National Archives, the Library of Congress, regional
archives, federal records centers, state archives, libraries, agencies, and local historical societies.
Historians use libraries to
 locate primary sources (firsthand information such as diaries, letters, and original
documents) for evidence
 find secondary sources (historians’ interpretations and analyses of historical evidence)
 verify factual material as inconsistencies arise
 survey historians’ interpretations of the past while recognizing how their purposes or
backgrounds might influence those interpretations
 understand the context in which primary sources were generated
 identify conflicting evidence and locate factual and interpretive information that can
help resolve or illuminate inconsistencies
 Descriptive research:Descriptive research is a study designed to depict the
participants in an accurate way. More simply put, descriptive research is all about As the
name implies, descriptive research methods are used when the researcher wants to
describe specific behavior as it occurs in the environment. There are a variety of
descriptive research methods available, and once again, the nature of the question that
needs to be answered drives which method is used. Traditionally, descriptive research
involves three main categories: observation, case studies, and surveys. Let's take a closer
look at each of these individually.
Types of descriptive research
 Developmental
 Observationa
 Survey
 Correlation
Developmental studies generally follow a group of participants over time and document
changes in status. These types of studies may be referred to as trend, cohort, or panel
designs. In most cases, researchers collect data at specific points in time which are used
as a basis of comparison and analysis.
Narrative or documentary-style reports may result from this type of design, but conclusions
cannot be applied to other members of the target population. Developmental studies are useful in
describing phenomena longitudinally and may be used as the foundation for further investigation
 PObservation
Observational research involves, well, observing. Say for instance you were interested in
learning more about how toddlers from different cultures engage in play activities. You
would not want to impact their natural inclinations to behave and engage in play activity,
so you would watch from afar or perhaps through a two-way mirror, simply observing and

8. noting what you are seeing. After you complete all of your observations, you can then
make inferences about the differences and similarities that were noted. Nothing has been
manipulated and hopefully they didn't even know you were there.
Features of observational research
1. Eye Observation – In an accurate sense, observation involves the use of the eyes rather
than the use of the ears and the voice. An experienced worker never believes in hearsay he
only trusts if he has observed that with his own eyes or if the report is a first hand evidence
of his eyes. So it can be said that observation done with the help of the eyes acts as a most
trustworthy medium for making an observation.
2. Aim – Observations which act on scientific grounds are brought in use by the scientists
or the researchers with some or the other aim to achieve something. Such scientists make
their observations in a very minute and a detailed manner which helps them in achieving
specific goals. These goals can include discovery of something, verification of the
hypothesis etc.
3. Planning – The value of an observation in an operation is only if it is done properly – in
a planned manner as, if it is done in a careless sense then the chance of making such an
observation again may come or not. Hence, observation should be carried out in a very
phased and a planned manner in order to get in depth understanding of an activity.
4. Recording – The various operations that we perform and the results that we obtain
should be remembered but a known fact is that memory is very deceptive in nature. With
the passage of time things tend to get out of mind, so it is very important to keep a record
of such activities. One very common method to keep a track of these activities is to write
down the various impressions, but now a days a tape or in some cases a video camera is
used for the recording purposes.
 Survey Research
The purpose of conducting survey research is to explore and/or describe an area of interest in
greater detail. Typically, a researcher gathers information from a large group of participants
either by mail, interactive online site, telephone interview, or personal interview.Results from
this type of study will produce a “snapshot” of the current state of the research issue. A survey
does not investigate relationships between variables, patient-specific characteristics, or
generalize findings to all members of a population. In other words, the purpose of survey
research is not to establish cause and effect relationships. Most individuals have completed a
survey of some type, whether a public opinion questionnaire, customer service form, or
community investment poll.

9.  Case study
Another type of descriptive research method is called a case study. A case study involves making
detailed observations about one specific case. For instance, a medical student who is interested in
learning more about a particularly unique patient might study the behaviors and thought
processes of that one individual. This could consist of observations or interviews, but like
observational research, there is no influence from the researcher. The intent is simply to examine
closely the qualities and characteristics f of this one case.
 Correlationalresearch
Correlation research presents a general approach to research that focuses on assessing the
covariation among naturally occurring variables. The goal of correlational research is to identify
predictive relationships by using correlations or more sophisticated statistical techniques. The
results of correlational research also have implications for decision making, as reflected in the
appropriate use of actuarial prediction. The greatest limitation of correlational research is the
problem of interpreting causal relationships.
Experimental research
Experimental research is generally recognized as the most appropriate method for drawing causal
conclusions about instructional interventions, for example, which instructional method is most
effective for which type of student under which conditions. In a careful analysis of educational
research methods, Richard Shavelson and Lisa Towne concluded that “from a scientific
perspective, randomized trials (we also use the term experiment to refer to causal studies that
feature random assignment) are the ideal for establishing whether one or more factors caused
change in an outcome because of their strong ability to enable fair comparisons” . Similarly,
Richard Mayer notes: “experimental methods— which involve random assignment to treatments
and control of extraneous variables—have been the gold standard for educational psychology
since the field evolved in the early 1900s” Mayer states, “when properly implemented, they
allow for drawing causal conclusions, such as the conclusion that a particular instructional
method causes better learning outcomes” . Overall, if one wants to determine whether a
particular instructional intervention causes an improvement in student learning, then one should
use experimental research methodology.