Research methodology part 1

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
PART 1
Dr.NEELAVATHY M.com (CA)., M.Phil., Ph.D, DGT.,
Assistant Professor ,
Department of Commerce,
E.M.G Yadava Womens College, Madurai
neelaravi05 @gmail.com

Research - Search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding a proper
and feasible solution to a problem. It is known as research.
Define research
1. Research, according to Redman and Mory is a “ Systematized effort to gain new
knowledge”.
2. According Clifford Woody, research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solution, collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.

Objectives of research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To Portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
Hypothesis-testing research studies).

Qualities of a Researcher
 Truthful & focused
 Alertness
 Self-confidence
 Guarded in utterance
 Strive to find out facts
 Time conscious
 Open to ideas
 Ability to identify guide
 Discuss his views
 Updating knowledge

Methods of Research
There are Three methods (i) Survey method (ii) Case study method and (iii) Ex post facto method.
1. Survey method – it is a ‘fact finding’ study. Under this method of research the researcher is
interested in knowing something about the whole population. But rarely he does it. He
studies only samples drawn from population. The data are collected directly from the sample
by observation or interviewing or mailing questionnaires at a particular period of time. Eg.
“A study on customers’ attitude towards Nokia mobile phone.
Advantages
1.Possibility of collection of many types of information from individuals.
2.To uncover facts previously unknown to the researcher.
3.Use of various methods of collecting data.
Disadvantages
1. There is a limit of the number of information that can be collected in a single survey.
2. This method is time-consuming and money consuming.
3. It is subject to sampling errors.

2. Case study method -
A case study is the most popular method of research. It is a qualitative, intensive, stimulating
and comprehensive study of a social phenomenon. Though the field of study is comparatively
limited unlike the other types of research it is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a
social group, an episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or
any other social unit. Eg. “The failure of Madurai Urban Co-operative Bank Ltd., - A case
study
Advantages
1. All methods of data collection can be used for case studies.
2. Case studies give to the researcher a wider range of insights into human life, which cannot
be gained through a general survey.
Disadvantages
1. More time consuming than other methods.
2. It is difficult to compare the results obtained from one case with other case.

3. Ex post facto method –
It is a systematic field study which aims at discovering the relations and interactions among
variables in social institutions and actual life situations. A social or institutional situation is
selected and the relations among the attitudes, values perceptions and behaviours of
individuals and groups in the selected situation are studies.
Advantages
1. Very much realistic since it is conducted in real world situations.
2. Data on a large number of variables can be obtained from the subject.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to obtain the co-operation of different organisations, institutions etc.
2. Its most serious weakness is its expost facto character.
Types of Research
Applied research – Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem faced
by the society or a business organisation. For example, a research undertaken to study the
causes of Dengue fever in a particular area is applied research. This type research has
practical utility to the society, individuals and business organisations.

 Analytical research – in this type of research the available information or data are thoroughly
analysed and critical evaluations are made to solve the problems. A study on the financial
performance of state bank of India is example of this type of research.
 Descriptive research- this type of research aims at highlighting the state of affairs of exiting
problems. It is a simple report of happenings both past and present. It is also reports the
characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group and also the frequency of
occurrence of an event like, the frequency of accidents in a particular place. If the report
presents the results on the basis of actual happening such descriptive research is called ‘Ex
post facto research’.
 Exploratory Research – the research with an indepth or detailed analysis is called
exploratory research. This type of research is applied when conclusive results could not be
obtained in the first or preliminary level of study of the problem. The objective of exploratory
research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing.
 Experimental Research – greater control over the research environment is the chief
characteristics of experimental research. It involves a laboratory experiment which is the basic
tool of analysis in the natural and physical sciences. This research can be carried out either on
the basis of trial and error method or under controlled experiment method.

 Pure or Fundamental or Basic Research – the research relating to natural phenomenon of
pure mathematics or human behavior is called fundaments research. The findings of pure
research formed the basic for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam
engine, telecommunication etc., which have developed and bettered our human life.
 Historical Research – proper and prompt use of historical sources such as documents,
remains, sculptures, coins and the like for the study of events or ideas of the past, or its trend,
facts and attitudes makes a research Historical research. Hence, the researcher is expected to
possess much social insights and historical orientation for this purpose.
 Other types of research – Quantitative research is that type of research which is based on the
measurement of quantity, Qualitative research is that type of research which based on
qualitative phenomenon.

 Historical Research – proper and prompt use of historical sources such as documents, remains,
sculptures, coins and the like for the study of events or ideas of the past, or its trend, facts and
attitudes makes a research Historical research. Hence, the researcher is expected to possess much
social insights and historical orientation for this purpose.
 Other types of research – Quantitative research is that type of research which is based on the
measurement of quantity, Qualitative research is that type of research which based on qualitative
phenomenon.
Research Process
 Formulating the research problem:
Formulating the research problem is the first stage in the research process. “A problem
well put is half solved”. There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relates to
states of nature and those which relate to relationship between variables. Formulating is
transforming the selected topic into a scientifically researchable question. Formulation gives a
direction and a specific focus to the research effort. It prevents the researcher from
indiscriminate gathering of data.
Formulating Process – (a) Developing a title (b)Review of previous studies (c)scope of the
study (d) defining the objectives of the study (e)formulating of hypothesis (f) Limitation of the
study.

 Extensive literature survey:
This is a very crucial stage in research. It is in this stage that the researcher makes
himself familiar with all the previous studies and their findings relevant to his field of work.
He learns the methodology and approach developed by these past studies. He evaluates the
conclusions of the previous studies in the light of the data he has collected. In this stage, the
researcher understands the latest developments in his field of work. This would help him to
avoid duplicating the past works.
 Development of Hypothesis:
Hypothesis is a statement developed on the basis of suspected or anticipated
relationship among various factors studied. Normally at the beginning of the researc, the
scholar would formulate a working hypothesis with which he would progress with his work.
Working hypothesis with which he would progress with his work. Working hypothesis is a
provisional statement, which guides the researcher in limiting the scope of his study. It enables
him to aviod collecting irrelevant data and facts.

• Preparation of research design:
This is a stage in which the researcher clearly out how he intends to carry out his
work. A research design is a description of conceptual structure within which the research
will be conducted. The researcher indicates the method of data collection, the skills at the
command of the researcher, the execution plan for collection of data, the time and other
resources available, the financial implications, etc. It may be noticed that the research
design would undergo changes with every step of progress. He would also state the
purpose of his research work, descriptive, diagnostic explorative or experimental.
 Determining the sample design:
The selection of sample is a very important task. The researcher should determine
the size of sample, the method of sampling, the test of sample, etc. A large sample would
always be preferred, it is not mandatory. Among the various methods of sampling,
sampling can be broadly classified as random and non random sampling, the researcher
should make a judicious selection.

 Collecting data:
The researcher at this stage should clearly spell out the sources of data for his work. He
could use both primary as well as secondary data. The former refers to the data collected for
the first time by the researcher himself from the informants or the sample respondents
specifically for his work. The later means the data already collected, published or unpublished
and available for use.
Primary data – (i) the researcher should first decide whether to use observation or interview or
questionnaire or schedule to collect the data. (ii) he should collect the data personally himself
or appoint a few investigators. (iii) he should design the questionnaire or schedule, pre test it
and then adopt it. (iv) he should arrange for classifying, tabulating and analysing the data after
ensuring the quality of the field data collected.
Secondary data – the researcher should always identify the authentic sources and collect data
from them.

 Analysis of data:
once the data are collected, they should be classified and tabulated. Then the analysis
of the data should be undertaken. At this stage, the researcher should select the tools analysis,
which are consistent with the objectives of the study. The tendency to carry out irrelevant
analysis should be avoided. He should aware of the limitations of the various methods of
analysis applied, so that the results are carefully interpreted, he may select either statistical or
mathematical tools. He may use the computer aided research anaysis.
 Testing of Hypothesis:
The researcher may develop hypothesis and he has to test this with the data collected.
He may use various statistical tools of test hypothesis. It is not to imply that every research
work should have a hypothesis to work with. When a research work is completed and
generalisations are arrived, they can be taken as hypotheses for subsequent research work. The
researcher should know that statistical evidence is not conclusion evidence.
 Preparation of thesis:
With all the stages completed, the researcher should how attempt preparing the
draft of his thesis. The thesis should clearly indicate the justification of the study, period of
study, sample size, sources of data, tools of analyses, bibliography, review of past studies, tec.
It should also have a separate chapter on results and discussion where the researcher would
report all his findings and give his interpretations. A chapter should follow this on summary of
findings of the research work and the policy implications. Care should be taken to incorporate
relevant tables, diagrammes, etc., at the appropriate place.

Technique involved in Defining a problem
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem
(iii) Surveying the available literature
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussion
(v) Rephrasing the research problem

Research Design
A plan of proposed study prepared by a researcher stating the research activities to be
performed in his proposed study before he undertakes his research work is called a research
design.
Definition
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure”. –
Claire Seltltiz
“ A research design is the logical and systematic planning and directing a piece of
research”. – Pauline V.young.

Types of research design
 Exploratory research design – This also called formulative research design. This aims at
formulating a problem for more precise idea or hypothesis. Based on this, the subsequent
stages of research could be planned. As this design is only of formulative type, it should be
highly flexible. There are three different methods are followed
(i) survey of related literature – by studying intensively the post studies and contributions
relating to the field of study, the research problem could be easily formulated.
(ii) Conducting experience survey – this refers to undertaking collection of details and
discussion with the experienced people in the chosen field of research. This would help the
researcher to determine the extent to which he is original and can avoid duplication.
(iii) Analysis of insight-stimulating examples is yet another method, in which depending upon
the study on hand check some omission. The experience of people would be used as a guide do
develop of formulate a hypothesis.

Descriptive and diagnostic research design
Descriptive research design is concerned with the research studies with a focus on the
portrayal of the characteristics of a group or individual or a situation. The main objective of
such studies is to acquire knowledge. For example, to identify the use of a product to various
groups, a research study may be undertaken to question whether the use varies with income,
age, sex or any other characteristics of population.
The diagnostic studies aim at identifying the relationship of any existing problem.
Based on the diagnosis, it would also help to suggests methods to solve the problem. In this
process, it may also evaluate the effectiveness of the suggestions already implemented.
Experimental research design
The experimental research studies are mainly focused on finding out the cause and
effect relationship of the phenomenon under study. Actually, when observation is arranged and
controlled, it becomes an experimental study. An experiment is a test or trial or an act or
operation for the purpose of discovering something unknown or of testing a principle,
supposition, etc. one or more variables are manipulated under conditions that permit the
collection of data that show the effect of any such variablesn in a unconfused fashion. There
are different type of experiments, such as: methodological, pilot study, heuristic, fact finding,
boundary, simulation, theoretical, illustrative, etc.

Important concepts relating to research design
 Dependent and independent variable
 Extraneous variable
 Control
 Confounded relationship
 Research hypothesis
 Experimental and non experimental hypothesis- testing research
 Experimental and control groups
 Treatments
 Experiment
 Experimental units

 Pre- test -
A Pre test is where a questionnaire is tested on a (statistically) small sample of
respondents before a full- scale study, in order identify any problems such as unclear wording
of the questionnaire taking too long to administer.
 Pilot survey –
A pilot survey is a strategy used to test the questionnaire using a smaller sample
compared to the planned sample size. In this phase of conducting a survey, the questionnaire is
administered to a percentage of the total sample population, or in more informal cases just to a
convenience sample.

Sampling
A sample is the part of the population or universe selected for the purpose of
investigation. Example, fruits are bought on the basis of the taste of a single fruit.
Define sample
1. “A sample is a smaller representation of the larger whole” – Goode and Hatt.
2. “Samples are devices for learning about large masses by observing a few individuals”. –
Nedcor.
Factors determining the size of sample
1. The size of the population: Depending upon the size of population, the size of sample has to
be decided. The larger the size of population, larger should be the sample size to achieve
representativeness and accuracy.
2. The resources available: what amount of time and financial resources are available to the
researcher will determine the size of sample.

3. The extent of accuracy desired: one of the requirements of data analysis is the accuracy
level.
4. Nature of population: the similarities and dissimilarities identified with population itself may
affect the sample size. If the population contains a lot of heterogeneous sub population then
large sample size is required.
5. Method of sampling adopted: depending upon the method of sampling used, the size of
sample will be decided.
6. Nature of respondents: success or failure of a sample survey depends ultimately on the
response of the in formats. So, the nature of respondents will influence the sample size.
Methods of Sampling
There are two methods of sampling – (i) Random sampling or probability sampling
(ii) Non random sampling or Non probability sampling.

 Random sampling or probability sampling: It is based on the theory of probability. Under
this method, every item in the universe has a known chance of being chosen. This implies that
the sample items are independent, the random sampling is based on the concept of equi-
probable outcome.
Types of random sampling
1. Simple random sampling – simple random sampling refers to the technique of sampling in
which each and every item of population or universe has an equal independent chance of
being included in the sample. Thus the unit in the population under simple random sampling
is provided an equal chance of being selected. Eg: lottery method, random number method.
2. Stratified random sampling – Under this method, the population is divided into some
groups or classes based on their homogeneity. Samples are drawn from each stratum at
random. It is a method used for effecting the precision of sampling.

3. Systematic sampling – Under this method, the universe or population is arranged on the basis
of some systems like alphabetical, numerical, geographical etc. The samples are drawn from
these lists.
Sampling interval (or)K = size of population / size of sample.
4. Cluster sampling – Cluster sampling refers to the procedure of dividing the population into
groups called cluster and samples are drawn from these clusters. A cluster may consist of either
the primary sample units or secondary sample units. From the selected cluster, either all
sample units or few of them are chosen for any sampling method.
5. Area sampling – In larger field surveys, clusters consisting of specific geographical areas likes
districts, taluks, villages, or blocks in a city are randomly drawn as the geographical areas and
selected for sampling.
6. Multi-stage sampling - Multi stage sampling is a type of sample design in which some
information is collected from the whole sample and additional information is also collected
from sub-sample of the full sample.

7. Sequential sampling – Under this method, the size of the sample units is not determined in
advance, but fixed according to mathematical decision rules based on the survey.
8. Multiphase sampling – In this method, a sample is taken for the first phase of research from
which some simple and general information is gathered. Then, a sub-sample from this large
sample is taken for a detailed enquiry in the second phase of the study.
Non random or non probability sampling – Non probability sampling or non random sampling
is not based on the theory of probability. Under this method of sampling the researcher cannot
assure that every element has an equal change of being chosen.
 Convenience sampling – This method is also called chunk method. A chunk refers to the
fraction of the population to be investigated. This chunk is not selected by probability but
selected by judgment or by convenience.
 Judgment sampling – It is that method of sampling, in which the samples are drawn on the
basis of personal judgment of a person. Generally the researcher uses his judgment in the
choice of the samples which he thinks most suitable for his study.

 Quota sampling – It is one of the commonly used methods of sampling in market surveys and
opinion polls. Though it is a non random sampling it combines the techniques of probability
sampling and purposive selection.
 Snow ball sampling – Snowball sampling is a special type of non probability sampling
techniques through which a respondent list is built up by using an initial set of its members as
informants.
Sampling and Non sampling error
 Sampling error – sampling errors arise due to drawing inference about the population on the
basis of a few observations. That is when the same size is not a true representative of the
population, any conclusion drawn on the basis of sample will not be applicable to population.
Such errors are caused due to several factors.
(i) Biased errors – Biased errors are understood as the interference of the investigators likes
and dislikes in the process of sampling.
(a) Faulty process of selection (b) Faulty collection of information (c)Faulty method
of analysis

(ii) Unbiased errors – These errors are caused due to chances not strictly due to any bias on
the part of the investigators.
• Non sampling errors – Non sampling errors are those errors, which are not due to
any sampling process. It is due to several other causes. However, much care is taken
to plan and execute a survey for data collection.

Data collection
Data – Data refer to the facts, figures, or information collected for a specific purpose. There are
two types of data (i) Primary data (ii) Secondary data
(i) Primary data – Primary data are those which are new and original in nature. These data are
the first hand information generated to achieve the purpose of the research. For example,
the data relating the population collected by the enumerators of the government are primary
data.
(ii) Secondary data – Secondary data are those data which are not new and original in nature.
These data are obtained from published of unpublished sources. For example, if we use the
data relating to the population which is published by the government it is secondary data.
Various sources of primary data
1. Interview method – This a method in which the investigators and the respondents meet and
questions raised are answered and records. This method is adopted when personal opinion
or view point are to be gathered as a part of data.

Types of Interview
 Direct method – In this type of interview, the interviewer and the interviewee meet personally
either with prior appointment if necessary. This type of interview may further be classified as :
Structured interview, Unstructured interview, focused interview, clinical interview and non
directive interview.
(a) Structured interview: In this type interview, the person collecting information decides in
advance the nature, scope, questions to be asked, the persons to be contacted, etc., in advance.
At the time of interview, no deviation is made from the questions to be asked or scope or the
persons. For example, it is usual for journalists to interview the finance Minister after the
presentation of Budget.
(b) Unstructured interview: In this type of interview, interview is conducted on the spot without
any preparations or advance information to the respondents. For example, suppose an
organization producing a new health drink wants to know the opinion of the people directly.
After the drink, their opinion is asked and the responses are noted down or recored.
(c) Focused interview: This type of interview is unstructured by nature. In this type of interview,
the object of the interviewer is to focus the attention of the respondent on a specific issue or
point.

(d) The interviewer has the freedom to plan the interview and conduct it the way he wants it. The
question sequence, wording of questions, etc., are all decided by the interviewer on the spot.
For example, suppose a detective is questioning a person regarding a crime committed in an
area. The detective has to be very much experienced to make the person interviewed to answer
only about the crime and nothing else.
(e) Non Directive interview: This is again unstructured type of interview. In this type, the
interviewer encourages the respondents to say what ever he likes and feels a subject matter.
There may not be much of questioning taking place. The respondents is free to express his
views or opinions without any direction from the interviewer.
(f) Telephone interview: This is basically a type of directive interview and but there is no scope
for physical presence of both the parties to the interview. Such interviews are used when the
information and the interviewer are geographically separated. Since the interview has to be
very much focused, the interviewer should prepare in advance the questions to be raised. A
well prepared interview will bring to light a lot of information.

Observation method – This method refers to the collection of information by way of
investigator’s own observation without interviewing the respondents. For example, in a
study relating to consumer’s brand preference as to television, the investigator can simply
observe the consumers behaviour by standing in the shop.
Types of Observation
1. Structured observation: when observation takes place strictly in accordance with a plan or a design
prepared in advance, it is called structured observation. In such a type, the observer decides what to
observe, what to focus on, what type of information or activity should be given importance, who are
all to be observed, what conditions are to be fulfilled to carry out observation, etc.
2. Unstructured observation: In this type of observation, there is no advance designing of what, how,
when, who etc., of observation. The observer is given the freedom to decide on the spot, to observe
everything that is relevant. For example, while observing the life style of a hill tribe in their place, the
observer may be able to observe several interesting things like how they discuss their plans, how they
entertain themselves, how they train the youngsters, how they settle quarrels, who take decisions, etc.
The main strength of the unstructured observation is that at the time of observation everything is
taken note of and the researcher then segregates the related and relevant details.
3. Participant observation (or) Overt observation: In this method, the observer is very much present
in the midst of what is observed. For example, suppose a researcher is studying the life style of a hill
tribe, then he might understand the life style of the tribe better only when he stays with them. Being
present on the spot, he would be able to continuously observe and note everything that is happening
around him. But he may not interfere with anything that is happening.

4. Non-Participant observation (or) Covert observation – This is a method in which the observer
remains detached from whatever is happening around him and does not involve himself in any of the
activities taking place. He is present only to observe and not to take part in the activities. That is, the
target audience does not know his presence at all.
5. Controlled observation: This is a slightly modified version of unstructured observation. In
case, the observer performs his work in an environment or situation, which is very much
planned or designed or set. For example, sometimes to test the effectiveness and alertness of
airport security system, a mock event (like hijacking of an aeroplane or fire accident) is carried
out. Then, how the security staff reacts to such mock event is observed.
6. Uncontrolled observation: This method is a modified version of unstructured observation.
No attempt is made to intervene the naturalness of the environment or situation. The observer
is at freedom to observe whatever is taking place around him in the natural set up.
Mailed Questionnaire method: Under this method, the questionnaire is sent to the respondents
by post. A request is made to the respondents through a covering letter to fill up the
questionnaire and send back within a specified time. Before applying this method, generally, a
pilot study, is conducted which reveals the weakness if any, of the questionnaire. This method
of collection is used in various economics and business surveys.
Schedules: Under this method, enumerators are a appointed and trained. These enumerators along
with questionnaire will go to the respondents and fill the answers to the questions, obtained
from the respondents. The difference between a questionnaire and schedule method is that
under the questionnaire method questionnaire is filled by the respondents and in schedule
method, the questionnaire is filled by the enumerators. Eg, collection of population census.

Secondary data: Secondary data refers to use of information already collected and published or
unpublished.
Source of Secondary data
1. Book: This refers to the published documents like books. The data contained in standard book published in the past
give very valuable information.
2. Periodicals or journals: This is one of the very valuable sources, of information. While booking may deal with
historical information, periodicals contain articles and abstract which provide the latest information. The current
thinking on any aspect is brought out through such publications.
3. Research thesis and dissertation: This is another useful source of secondary data. But while using this source, the
scholar should be careful to study the objectives of the thesis being referred. It should also be remembered that thesis
submitted in the distant past may be used only for understanding the relationship but not for replication.
4. Bibliographies: These are alphabetically arranged list of useful publication with details such as the year of
publication, name of the author, title, tec. This may serve as a source of information to locate and access the
information relevant to the work being done.
5. Food notes: At the end of each page of any published material, food notes are give. Theses notes would throw light
on the source of information. By tracing this source, original information and additional facts may be available.
6. Encyclopaedia: This is a publication where every useful information is presented with authority, supported by
diagrammes and facts.
7. Statistical data source: Several organizations publish at regular interval complied statistical data on various aspects.
For example, statistical hand book, united national statistical year book.
8. Directories and year book: This is another sources of secondary data in which specific and focused information is
available. For example, Kotharis Directory of industries give reliable data industry wise in India every year.

Research methodology part 1

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