The best research method طرق البحث

Research Method (P a g e | 1) abdullah alhriri
Emil: abdull-87@hotmail.com
unit 1 Meaning of research
The word of research is composed of two syllables, re and search. Re is a prefix
meaning again, a new or over again search is a verb that means to examine closely and
carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful,
systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to
establish facts or principles.
The Webster‟s International Dictionary process a very inclusive definition of research
as “ a careful critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles diligent
investigation in order to ascertain something ”.
It is a systematic process of solving a problem. This process consists of three
elements: (1) a question, problem, or a hypothesis; (2) data; and (3) analysis and
interpretation of the data.
The concept of research refers to Searching for knowledge, Adding new knowledge,
Finding out something undiscovered, and Rediscovering something gain.
Verbs that have similar meaning as research To find, to discover, to investigate, to
inquire, to explore.
Research Methodology
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may
be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study
the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them.
Research features:
• To find solution to problem.
• To get the information purposeful.
• To apply systematic and scientific methods.
Characteristics Research
A good research has the following two qualities:
• Reliability: It refers to whether the research can produce the same or very similar
results if is conducted again under the same or very similar conditions.

a. Internal reliability: It refers to the consistency of data collection, analysis and
results interpretation.
b. External reliability: It refers to whether replicating a research by other
researchers produces similar results to those obtained in the original study.
• Validity: It refers to whether the research investigates the problem that it is
intended to investigate.
a. Internal validity: It has to do with factors, which may directly affect outcomes.
b. External validity: It is concerned with generalizability.
These are some more characteristics:
• Controlled:
The concept of control implies that you set up your study in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors on the relationship between the study
variables.
• Rigorous:
You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed are
relevant, appropriate and justified.
• Systematic: This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake the investigation
follow a certain logical sequence.
• Verifiable: This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
• Empirical: This means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
• Critical: This implies that the process of investigation must be foolproof and free
from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to
withstand critical scrutiny.
• Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating
the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Motivation in research:
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
6. Social cause.
7. Curiosity of human being.
8. Social welfare.

Because of the interaction between people and the environment we have problem and
knowledge for solving the problems.
Cause and effects:
A problem:
A problem is interpreted as a problem in terms of context. A problem is an
arrangement of elements or factors.
A solution:
A solution is an arrangement of elements or factors in a particular context.
A knowledge:
Knowledge expresses the relationship between elements. It is nothing but the
exploration or relationship between elements. There is nothing called absolute knowledge
to things. The concept of knowledge changes from person to person and situation to
situation.
We can define any concept on the basis of parameters:
• Objectives: They differ from person to person but there are common objectives.
• Content: It differs from person to person but sometimes it is similar but the manner
is different.
• Methodology: Manner
• Theories: They explore phenomena. They give explanation to phenomenon. They
provide a frame for explanation. Many things can be solved by mixing different
theories and content.
The various steps regarding the research process:
1. defining the research problem
2. reviewing literature (Reviewing concepts and theories, reviewing previous
research finding)
3. formulating hypotheses
4. designing research (including sample design)
5. collecting the data (execution)
6. analyzing data (Test hypotheses if any)
7. interpretation
8. preparation of the report or the thesis
Step 1:Defining the research problem
person
EnvironmentProblem
Knowledge

Essentially, there two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view. Forms for stating the research problem:
a. Stating the problem as the research purpose: This from is obligatory and should be used
in all types of research. The statement of the research purpose has to be decisive,
inclusive, preventive, and related.The present study aims at investigating the
relationship …..
b. Stating the problem as questions to be answered: It is used along with the research
purpose as a single questions or a group of questions., es/No questions or Wh.
questions.
c. Stating the problem as objectives to be achieved:
d. Stating the problem as hypotheses to be tested:
Step 2:Reviewing the literature:
Reviewing the literature is an essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with
the available body of knowledge in your area of interest. It is integral part of entire research
process and makes valuable contribution to every operational step. It can be time-
consuming, daunting and frustrating, but it is also rewarding. This step (Reviewing
literature) brings clarity and focus to your research problem, improves your methodology,
broadens your knowledge, and contextualizes your findings.
Procedures for reviewing the literature:
i) Searching for existing literature in
your area of study.
ii) Reviewing the literature selected.
iii) Developing a theoretical
framework. iv) Developing a
conceptual framework.
Step 3:formulating hypotheses
Hypothesis is a mere assumption or some suppositions which can be proved or disproved.
Also, it is defined as a temporary imaginative solution.
According to Kothari, there are two types of hypothesis which are null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. Alsamawi, however, claims that there are three types of hypothesis
which are null hypothesis and directional and non-directional hypothesis. The two types
which are added by Alsamawi are, to some extent , similar to Kothari's alternative.
Step 4:Preparing the research design
Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted.
Its function is to help in collecting the relevant information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non- experimental
hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as
beforeand- after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control)

or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block design,
Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher
must select one for his own project.
The preparation of research design involves the consideration of the following: a.
the means of obtaining the information;
b. the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
c. explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be
organized and the reasoning leading to the selection; d. the time available for research;
and
e. the cost factor relating to research
Step 5: collecting the data
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. Primary data can be collected
either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an experiment,
he observes some quantitative measurements. But in the case of a survey, data can be
collected by any one or more of the following ways: Observation, Personal interview,
Questionnaire, Tests, …etc.
Step 6: Analyzing data (Test hypotheses if any)
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The
analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences. The researcher should classify the raw data into some
purposeful and usable categories. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data
with the help of various statistical measures.
Step 7:Generalizations and Interpretation
If a hypothesis is tested, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization,
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain
his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.
Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a
position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier.
Step 8:Preparation of the report or the thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done. Writing of report
must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:

(i) the preliminary pages;
(ii) the main text, and (iii)
the end matter.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as „it seems,‟ „there may be‟, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
Type of Research
Research can be classified from three perspectives:
1. Application of the research study
2. Objective in undertaking the research
3. Inquiry mode employed

A. Application
1. Pure Research : ( Basic research or Fundamental research) involves developing
and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the
researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or
in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order
to add to the existing body of research methods and knowledge. It seeks to
discover basic truths and principles.
2. Applied Research: applied research is done to solve specific, practical
questions; for understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is
usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research.
Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions.
B. Objectives :
1. Descriptive Research: includes the surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the
state of affairs as it exists at present.
2. Correlational Research: the main emphasis in a correlational research study is
to discover or establish the existence of a relationship between two or more
aspect of situation .
3. Explanatory research : attempts of clarify why and how there is a relationship
between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
4. Exploratory Research: this is when a study is undertaken with the objective
either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities
of undertaking a particular research study.
C. Inquiry mode
Type of research
Inquiry ModeObjectiveApplication
Pure research
Applied research
Exploratory
research
Descriptive
research
Explanatory
research
Correlational
research
Quantitative
research
Qualitative
research

1. Quantitative Research : structured approach to inquiry is classified as
quantitative research. In the structured approach everything that forms the
research process – objectives ,design ,sample ,and questions – is
predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem.
The study is classified as quantitative study if you quantify the variation in a
phenomenon , situation , problem or issue ,if information is gathered using
predominantly quantitative variables , and if analysis is geared to ascertain the
magnitude of the variation.
2. Qualitative Research : unstructured approach to inquiry is classified as
qualitative research. The unstructured approach allows flexibility in all aspects
of process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of the problem. The
study is classified as qualitative study if the purpose of the study is primarily
to describe a situation , phenomenon , problem or event , the information is
gathered through the use of variables measured on nominal of ordinal scales
and if analysis is done to establish the variation in the situation , phenomenon
or problem without quantifying it
Some Other Types of Research:
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated
approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor. - From the point of view of time:
1. one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research
is confined to a single time-period.
2. longitudinal research is carried on over several time-periods.
- From the point of view of environment in which it is to be carried out 1.
be field-setting research.
2. laboratory research or simulation research,
Scientific inquiry
Scientific research is a systematic , controlled empirical and critical investigation of
propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena.
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation , classification and interpretation of
data . now, obviously, this process is one in which nearly all people engage in the course
of lives. The main difference between our day-to- day generalizations their daily and the
conclusions usually recognized as scientific method leis in the degree of formality
,rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of the latter .

Scientific method means observation based on verifiable evidence or systematic body of
proof that can be cited. For eg. Scientific approach will test notion another man is more
intelligent than woman rural are more hard working than urban people and so on.
Scientific explanation on observed facts rules of philosophical and metaphysical
explanation of relation that cannot be tested. Scientific studies believe in testing and
validity.
The goal of a scientific inquiry is to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations
that can predict the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain an
understanding of reality, and later use that understanding to intervene in its causal
mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions,
the more useful it is, and the more likely it is to be correct. The most successful
explanations, which explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of
circumstances, are called scientific theories.
Four characteristics of good scientific research. These characteristics apply equally to
quantitative and qualitative investigations.
1. The goal is inference.
2. The procedures are public
3. The conclusions are uncertain
4. The content is the method
The scientific method may be described as consisting of four steps:
1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or a group of related phenomena.
When an investigator has little prior information, the first step is description, or as
Steiner characterizes it, “natural history.” This is the stage when qualitative methods
may provide considerable information about what-is.
2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena. Based on qualitative
and/or descriptive studies, investigators begin to speculate about which variables
might be related to other variables and in what manner (directly or indirectly). In
educational research, the hypothesis is often a question about the relationship
between or among variables that may influence learning. The hypothesis may be one
that merely asks whether a relationship exists (correlational research), or the
hypothesis may state a cause-and-effect relationship.
3. Predict the existence of other phenomena using the hypothesis, or predict the
results of new observations. Consider the Rosenthal & Jacobson study as an
example.
4. Conduct experimental tests of the predictions by several independent
experimenters who use proper experimental methods.

Features of scientific study:
1- Verifiable evidence (factual/ tangible)
2- Accuracy (what really exists )
3- Precision (eg. 190 instead of large word)
4- Systemization (finding all relevant data )
5- Objectivity (free from biases)
6- Recording (jotting down at earliest)
7- Controlling conditions (controlling all variables except one and then attempting to
examine what happens when what variable is varied)
8- Training investigation (what to look for, how to interpret it and avoid inaccurate
data collection)
Elements for scientific inquiry
There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific
inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the
following classification of method components. These methodological elements and
organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of natural sciences than social
sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the
results, and formulating new hypotheses.
Four essential elements of the scientific method are
iterations, recursions, interleaving, or orderings of the following:
• Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject
of inquiry)
• Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations
and measurements of the subject)
• Predictions (reasoning including logical deduction from the hypothesis or
theory)
• Experiments (tests of all of the above)
Philosophical and Sociological foundations of research

The researchers use social laws of rules in researches . the researcher selects research area
that accepted by the society . society accepts researches that are in the benefits on it.
Philosophical foundation:
According to all religion philosophy , researches must achieved .
Theoretical perspectives and philosophical approaches to sociology informed
methodology and it is informed by epistemology.
All research is based on assumptions about how the world is perceived and how we can
best come to understanding it.
Epistemology is another philosophical concept , which gets the researcher consider what
counts as valid knowledge in society . our view on what counts as valid knowledge will
be reflected in other theoretical perspectives and thus methodology and methods
employed .
Phenomenology focus on the processes and experience one goes through .
phenomenology is the study of phenomena or the thing we experience and the ways we
experience such things (qualitive studies).
Positivism , according to positivism reality is stable, observable, and can be measured.
Knowledge is obtained using the scientific method, which is objective and measureable.
Also the researcher when repeated should yield the similar results. (quantitative studies)
Interdisciplinary approach and its implications in various research area.
Interdisciplinary Research (IDR) is a mode of research by teams or individuals that
integrates information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories
from two or more disciplines or bodies of specialized knowledge to advance fundamental
understanding or to solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single
discipline or area of research practice.
IDR has a collaborative focus and blend and integrates research between discipline. This
may range from the sharing of idea to full integration of concepts , methodology
procedures , theory , terminology , data , and organization of research and training in a
fairly large field.
Researchers from two or more disciplines work together and create a shred discourse
about the research problem . sometimes this offers a vantages point from which to
interrogate the core assumptions of a discipline and to trace or even redraw its
boundaries .
IDR interdisciplinary approach:

1. Generate better researches.
2. Reduce the overall cost of constructing and operating research facilities
3. Helps recuit and retain the best staff
4. Attracks more money in research grants
5. Opens up a lot more a venues for innovation and getting more knowledge in other
specialty disciplines for researchers.
Implications in various research area:
• At sociology: how does your topic or problem affect individuals ? are there
emotional or mental effect?
• At business: what are the financial aspects of your topic ? how will money
or lack thereof affect, what are the solution?
• At history: what is the history of this problem ? it is a new issue or one with
roots in the recent of ancient past?
• At politics/ law: how does politics enter in to problem?
• At technology: is the technology a factor in the problem? Could technology
solve the problem
unit 2 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
Research methods:
It may be understood as all those methods /techniques that are used for conduction of
research . it refer to the methods the researcher use in performing research operations. In
other word, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of
studying his research problem are termed as research methods.
It can be put into following 3 groups:
1. Including those methods , which are concerned with the collection of data .
2. Consisting of those statistical techniques, which are used to establish relationships
between the data and unknowns.
3. Consisting of those methods , which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the result
obtained.
Qualitative studies:
Qualitative studies are those in which descriptions of observation is not ordinarily
expressed in quantitative terms. It is not that numerical measures are never used but that
other means of descriptions are emphasized.
Quantitative research:
Quantification has been defined as numerical methods of describing observations of
material or characteristic when a defined portion of material or characteristics used as a

standard for measuring any sample a valid and precise method of data description is
provided.
Quantitative Qualitative
General idea
-Emphasizes numbers,
measurements, control, and
experimentation
-This is the
traditional approach in
AEE research
-Inductive approach
-Emphasizes natural settings,
observations, verbal narratives, and
interpretations
-Emerged in the mid-1970s as an approach to
educational research - Deductive data
Philosophy Positivism Phenomenology
Goals
Test theory
Establish facts
Show relationships
Predict
Statistically describe
To quantify to predict causal
relationships to describe
characteristics of a
population
Understand theory
Develop understanding
Describe multiple realities
Capture naturally occurring behavior
To describe variation
To describe and explain relationship
To describe individual experience
To describe group norms
Design
Structured
Predetermined
Formal
Specific
Evolving
Flexible
General
Sample Large Small
Representative
Random Selection
Control Groups
Stratified
Non-representative
Purposeful sampling
Comprehensive Sample
Maximum Variation Sample
Network or Snowball (a chain referral sampling)
Sampling by Type
Typical case
Quota sampling
Data
Quantities
Counts
Measures
Instruments
Numbers
Statistics
- Data are tabulated and
described statistically
Verbal descriptions Field Notes
Observations
Documents
Photographs
People‟s own words
Narrative
-Tabulation limited to help identify patterns and
used to support qualitative meanings

Question format
Close-ended
So Participant responses do
not influence or determine
how and which questions
researcher ask next
Open-ended
Participant responses affect how and which
questions researcher ask next
Methods
Experiments
Quasi-experiments
Surveys
Structured Interviews
Structured Observations
Observation
Open-ended interviewing
Review of documents and artifacts
In-depth interview Focus groups. In-depth
interviews.
Direct observation.
-Dairy methods – the researcher or subject keeps
a personal account of daily events, feelings. --
Discussion, interactions etc.
-Role-play and simulation – participants may be
asked to play a role, or may be asked to observe
role-play, after which they are asked to rate
behavior, report feelings and predict further
events.
-Case-study – this is an in-depth study of just one
person, group or event. this technique is simply a
description of individuals.
Meaning
Meaning is derived from
statistical procedures
employed
Meaning is derived from qualitative strategies
employed
Classification of Research Method:
Method of research may be classified from many points of view:
1. The field to which applied: social science, education, philosophy etc.
2. Purpose: description, prediction, determination of causes determination of statues.
3. Place where it is conducted: In the field or in the laboratory.
4. Application : Pure research or applied research .
5. Data gathering devices employed: Tests, questionnaires, rating scales etc.
6. Character of data applied: Objective, subjective, quantitative e etc.
7. Forms of thinking: Deductive, inductive etc.
8. Control of factors: controlled and un controlled experiments.
Research Methods 1. Historical Research Method
The word history originally means the search for knowledge and truth. When a
researcher studies the development of a problem, back history of a problem, and stages
history of a problem.

The historical research conducts critical evaluation and interpretation of historical
documents and records .According to Walter R. Borg, Historical research is the
systematic and synthesis objective location, evaluation synthesis of evidence in orderto
establish facts and draw conclusions concerning past event. n such a manner that general
laws, trends or hypothesis can be framed.
There are two types of resources in historical research methods.
1. Primary sources which refer to documents and events. All the information is one
hundred percent true.
2. Secondary sources depend on primary sources. Some writers use primary sources
to write novels. It is called secondary because it can be changed. So when you
collect information from secondary sources, your result is not completely true.
Sometimes, some researcher duplicates duplicate the use of primary sources in
their work, so we can make research to criticize them.
Steps involve in historical research:
The main steps can be discussed below:
1- Selection of the problem.
2- Objective of the study.
3- Formulation of the hypothesis.
4- Preparations for Collection of Data.
5- Testing of Hypothesis: It is necessary in historical method.
6- Evaluation of data: Data is verified validated through the process of criticism.
7- Organization of Data.
8- Interpretation and Writing Report.
Advantages of historical method:
The advantage of historical method can be listed below:
1. Some problems can be investigated only by this method, so that this method fills
in a big gap of making the research possible and meaningful on such problems that
may not offer to other methods. In a sing time series data for assessing the progress
or the impact of several polices and initiatives, the historical records … bisk main
sources to the study. For such problems therefore, only historical approach would
suit better.
2. Historical data is not repeatable under any circumstance, and therefore, historical
methods serves a ready hand method to the researchers whose problems depends
on historical observations. Historical methods has also an advantage to offer the
past data under the then prevailing conditions and afford an opportunity to the
research to views these observations in the past setting.
3. Historical records provide very useful information that gose a long way towards
the solution of a research problem. Sometimes the research is compelled to fall

back upon past data since he cannot create these afresh and hence it is highly
advantageous to follow historical method where the use of time series data is
unavoidable in any case.
Limitations:
Historical method is not free from limitations. The main drawbacks are 1-
Non-matching situations.
Any past situation cannot be matched to an existing one. Iy might have been influenced
by socio-economic and political factors that are no longer existing and hence comp
ratability of the past to the present can easily be questioned. This is more so in social
sciences where it is very difficult to keep the socio-economic conditions and other
dimensions on the problems under control.
2- Over-generalization :
Researcher with this approach tends to over-generalization their results. This sometimes
leads to unplansible explanation and inaccurate of specification of research problem.
Sometimes also, the results may be generalized beyond reasonable limits. And
accordingly, these may lead to misleading understanding of historical process.
3- Subjective interpretation:
The researcher sometimes becomes compelled to go in for subjective interpretations at
the cost of objective analysis, only to defend is findings, which could otherwise be
challenged or disproved by others. Hence, the loss of objectivity in such cases can lead to
considerable inaccuracies in the research. In short, subjectivity of interpretation is a basic
limitation of the historical approach to the research. Limitation may also arise in the
writing of history itself because:
1- Historians cannot write history life-sizes.
2- Not all happenings in time and space can be known of the time of writing. 3-
Personal biases and private interpretations often enter unconsciously.
Necessary condition for historical research:
As we know that historical method needs to find explanation of question of current
interest by an intensive study of the past which is not any easy task for this purpose a
research must have some essential qualities. The following are the condition necessary
for historical research:
1. Selection of a topic for research: The research should be capable and competent to
choose the topic for his study
2. Social insight: the research should have great deal of social insight to understand
the cause effect relation of social events.
3. Historical Orientation: correct conclusion can be drawn only when the facts and
event are understood and seen by the researcher in the historical perspective.
4. Knowledge of related social sciences.

5. Wide education background.
6. Familiarity with the topic its objectives.
7. Dispassionate study.
8. Imaginative capacity: the researcher should be capable of understanding the topic
discussed by history. He must have an imagination power to get a complete picture of the
topic in order to complete his study.
9. Selection and rejection of the material.
10. Analyzing and co- ordinating capacity.
11. Knowledge of the study field.
12. Knowledge of his own limitation.
13. Availability of necessary facilities.
2. The Case Study Method
The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and
involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit. That unit may be a person,
afamily, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method
of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study is essentially an intensive
investigation of the particular unit under consideration to locate the factors that
account for the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.
Important definitions of the case study method are:
• “Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, be
that unit a personal, a family, institution, cultural groups or even an entire
community.” - P.V. Yong.
• ” Case study is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary
character of the social object being studied. Expressed somewhat differently, it
is an approach which views any social unit as a whole.” - Goode and Hatt.
“Case study is a complete analysis and report of the status of an individual
subject with respect as a rule to specific phases of his total personality.” –F.I.
whitney.
Source of Data
Case studies are not limited to any single sources of data collection. A number of
sources of data collection should be employed by the researcher In the case study method
the main source data are Personal documents, Life history.

Characteristics:
The important characteristics of the case study method are as under:
1. The researcher can take one single social unit or more than one unit for his study
purpose.
2. The selected unit is studied intensively so as to obtain enough information for
drawing correct inferences.
3. This method enable us to understand the complex of factors that are operative
within a social unit as an integrated totality.
4. In case study, we make every possible effort to collect information concerning all
aspects of life, so case study deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into
life.
5. In case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-relationship of
causal factors.
6. Under case study method the behavior pattern of the concerning unit is studied
directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.
Assumptions:
The case study method is based on several assumptions:
i. The assumption of uniformity in the basic human nature.
ii. The assumption of studying the natural history of the unit concerned.
iii. The assumption of comprehensive study of the unit concerned.
Step involved in Case Study
Following main steps are involved in case study method:
1. Selection of cases and Identification of situations .
2. Collection and Recording of Data .
3. Interpretations of Data .
4. Report Writing.
Advantages:
There are several advantages of the case study method:
1. The case study method enables us to understand fully the behaviour pattern of the
concerned unit.
2. Through case study a researcher can obtain a real record of personal experiences,
tensions and motivations that drive him to action along with the forces that direct
him to adopt a certain pattern of behaviour.
3. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social
unit and its relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its
surrounding environment.
4. It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be
helpful in testing them.
5. The method facilitates intensive study of social units.

6. Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in
the task of constructing the appropriate questionnaire for his study.
7. The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case
study method such as depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study reports
of individuals, and letters.
8. Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be
studied along with the nature of the universe.
9. This method is a means to well understand the past of a social unit.
10. Case studies constitute the perfect type of sociological material as they represent
a real record of personal experiences .
11. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn
increases his analyzing ability and skill.
12. This method makes possible the study of social changes.
13. Case study techniques are indispensable for therapeutic and administrative
purposes.
Limitations:
Important limitations of the case study method may as well be highlighted.
1. Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in
case studies is often not comparable.
2. Real information is often not collected because the subjectivity of the researcher
does enter in the collection of information in a case study.
3. The danger of false generalisation because only few units are studied.
4. It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure.
5. The case data are often vitiated because the subject, according to Read Bain, may
write what he thinks the investigator wants.
6. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very
realistic at times.
7. Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use
it in case of a big society.
8. Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method.
He often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer
about it.
3. The survey Method
Survey or descriptive method is used to study the present problem.
It is a systematic method for gathering information from ( a sample of ) individuals
for the purpose of describing the attributes of larger population of which the
individuals are members. The attributes attempt to describe basic characteristics or
experiences of large and small populations in our world.
Characteristics

1. Information is gathered by asking people questions.
2. Information is collected either by having interviewers ask questions and record
answers by having people read or hear questions and record their answers.
3. Information is collected from only a subset of the population to be described ( a
sample) rather than from all members.
When do we use this method?
We use this method when we have large data and large population. University
use this method to evaluate the level of learners.
Type of surveys
The surveys may be classified with following types:
1. General or specific surveys
2. Regular and Ad hoc Survey
3. Preliminary and final surveys
4. census and sample survey
steps of social survey
The essential steps involved in planning and execution of a social survey are:
1. Selection of a problem .
2. Preliminary study or pilot study.
3. General objective of the study .
4. Specific objective .
5. Resources and personnels.
6. Sampling .
7. Method of Collecting Data .
8. Training the investigating staff .
9. Organization of the field work .
10.Content analysis.
11.Analysis .
12.Reporting.
Merits(Advantages):
survey method has following advantages in comparison with other methods: 1.
Direct and close contact Between researcher and the respondents
2. Greater objectivity
3. Testing the validity of theories
4. Formulation and testing of Hypothesis
5. Social surveys are based on actual observation

6. Universal application
Limitations
1- A methodology relying on standardization forces the researcher to develop
questions general enough to be minimally appropriate for all respondents, possibly
missing what is most appropriate to many respondents.
2- Surveys are inflexible in that they require the initial study design (the tool and
administration of the tool) to remain unchanged throughout the data collection.
3- The researcher must ensure that a large number of the selected sample will reply.
4- It may be hard for participants to recall information or to tell the truth about a
controversial question.
5- As opposed to direct observation, survey research (excluding some interview
approaches) can seldom deal with "context."
4. Experimental Method
It is quantitative research method that involves collecting numerical data about
measurable phenomena to measure the effect of one or more variable
(independent, cause, experimental, treatment) on other fixed variables(dependent
variable) using inferential statistics. They differ according to the number of the samples
involved and the variables under investigation.
Three types of experimental designs can be identified:
1. Pre-experimental design 2.
Quasi-experimental design
3. True experimental design.
According to Festinger, “ The essence of experiment may be describe as observing
the effect on a dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable. ”
V. H. Bedkar ” Experimental method implies a controlled observation of a
succession of events. The aim is to for causal connection. ”
Experimental Characteristics
1- Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established. 2- It
allows for precise control of variables. The purpose of control is to enable the
experimenter to isolate the one key variable which has been selected (the IV), in order to
observe its effect on some other variable (the DV); control is intended to allow us to
conclude that it is the IV, and nothing else, which is influencing the DV.
3- Experiments can be replicated. We cannot generalize from the results of a single
experiment. The more often an experiment is repeated, with the same results obtained,
the more confident we can be that the theory being tested is valid. The experimental
method consists of standardized procedures and measures which allow it to be easily
repeated.

4- It is also worth noting that an experiment yields quantitative data (numerical amounts
of something) which can be analysed using inferential statistical tests. These tests
permit statements to be made about how likely the results are to have occurred through
chance.
5- Observation.
6- Controlling.
7- To find out cause and effects.
8- Repetition.
Merits
1- True result.
2- Researcher can build basic laws and principles through experimental method.
3- This method is used to find out the truth of the universe.
4- It is useful in basic and applied sciences.
5- researcher can have control over variables 6- use to determine what is best for
population.
7- gain insight into methods of instruction
8- intuitive practice shaped by research
Limitations of laboratory experiments:
1- Artificiality:
2- Behavior in the laboratory is very narrow in its range. By controlling the situation
so precisely, behavior may be very limited.
3- A major difficulty with the experimental method is demand characteristics.
Imagine you have been asked to take part in a psychology experiment. Even if you did
not study psychology, you would be trying to work out what the experimenter expected
to find out. Experimenters too have expectations about what their results are likely to be.
Demand characteristics are all the cues which convey to the participant the purpose of the
experiment.
4- The experimental method as used in psychology has a history of using biased or
unrepresentative sampling
5- It has already been noted that a strength of the experimental method is the amount
of control which experimenters have over variables. However it must also be noted that
it is not possible to completely control all variables. There may be other variables at work
which the experimenter is unaware of. In particular, it is impossible to completely control
the mental world of people taking part in a study.
6- A very major problem with the experimental method concerns ethics.
7- political pressure may skew results.
8- groups may not be comparable.
9- results may only apply to one situation and may be difficult to replicate 10- sample
may not be representative.

11- human response can be difficult to measure
12- subject to human error
Other Methods:
1. Ethnography Ethnography has a background in anthropology. The term
means “portrait of a people” and it is a methodology for descriptive studies of
cultures and peoples. The cultural parameter is that the people under
investigation have something in common.
Examples of parameters include:
1. geographical – a particular region or country
2. religious
3. tribal
4. shared experiences
Ethnographic studies entail extensive fieldwork by the researcher. Data collection
techniques include both formal and informal interviewing, often interviewing individuals
on several occasions, and participant observation. Because of this, ethnography is
extremely time consuming as it involves the researcher spending long periods of time in
the field. - Analysis of data adopts an “emic” approach. This means that the researcher
attempts to interpret data from the perspective of the population under study.
Ethnographic research can be problematic when researchers are not sufficiently
familiar with the social mores of the people being studied or with their language.
Interpretation from an “etic” perspective – an outsider perspective – may be
misinterpretation causing confusion. For this reason, the ethnographic researcher usually
returns to the field to check his interpretation with informants thereby validating the data
before presenting the findings.
2. EX – Post Facto Research:
This is mean from after the fact. It is systematic empirical inquiry. It is occurs
when data or information is reliable but could not be generated by experimental
research. This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of
dependent and independent variables. In this research the researchers control on the
behavior of independent variables is very weak and in many cases no control is
possible.
Ex Post Facto method is often used for descriptive research studies in social
science and business research. The main characteristic of this method is that the
researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or
what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive
studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example,

frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies
also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control
the variables.
Procedures when conducting ex-post facto method:
1. The first step should be to state the problem
2. Determination of the group to be investigated
3. Data is collected
4. Next follows the interpretation of the research results, the hypothesis is either
confirmed of rejected.
5. Lastly, it should be mentioned that this type of the research has shortcomings
In any case, this type of research has some of the weaknesses which, at times,
obstruct its application and adaptability on a larger scale. These weaknesses are:
1. The inability to control the changing patterns of independent variables.
2. The ex-post facto research findings owe the risk of improper interpretations.
3. The ex-post facto research may not have any particular hypothesis as there is a
likelihood that such an hypothesis may predict a spurious relationship between
independent and dependent variables.
Ex-post facto research is a good explanatory instrument of changes that take place in
the dependent variables .
3. Field Investigation Research
A field experiment is a research study in a realistic situation in which one or more
independent variables are manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully
controlled conditions as the situation will permit . where the laboratory experiment
has a maximum of control , most field studies must operate with less control a factor
that is often a severe handicap to the experiment .
The weakness of field experiment , therefore , are of practical nature . the control
can not be held as very tight , the investigator himself works under several influences
and may at times be faced with unpleasant situations and the independent variables
may got affected by uncontrolled environmental influences.
4. Evaluation Research
Evaluation research is a recent addition to the types of research . it would be
appropriate to call this category of research as a product of development programming
which has been adopted on a very large scale in the recent years, more particularly
after second world war when most type of research is primarily directed to evaluate

the performance of the development projects and other economic programs that have
already been implemented .
The objective being to realistically assess the impact of any such programes .
Evaluation is held to mean comprehensive concept of measurement and it is because
of this definition of evaluation that project evaluation that project evaluation have
become frequent in the recent years.
The evaluation is carried out with respect to the broader charges and major
objectives of a program .
The evaluation research is of three types , mainly:
1. Concurrent evaluation
2. Phasic or periodic evaluation
3. Terminal evaluation
5. Laboratory Research
By definition , research of this type is confined to laboratory experiments alone.
The basic feature of such research is that there exists a possibility of exercising control
over independent variables and isolating their influences for plausible explanations .
A Laboratory experiment is a research study in which the variance of all or nearly
all of the possible influential independent variables not pertinent to the immediate
problem of the investigation is kept at a minimum. This is done by isolating the research
in a physical situation apart from the routine or ordinary living and by manipulating one
or more independent variable.
This type of research has l limited application in social sciences as it is extremely
difficult to study social variables in isolation of each other. However , it may , at times be
possible to create a situation wherein a maximum control can be exercised to keep the
variations among the independent variables at m minimum. In such cases laboratory
experiment types of research may find its applicability in social research as well.
6. Action Research
This is a recent classification . this type of research is conducted through direct
action . the actual study may consist of a number of phases, say, base-line survery,
systematic action, periodical assessment. Etc.
Action research in the phasic order may not be much different than merely
conducting survey research at different stages . it has the advantages of direct
actionoriented solutions to the real world problems and sometimes has the potentialities
of suggesting significant improvements in the existing solutions .

Unit 3 Research proposal and its elements
Research proposal
A research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a detailed
description of the proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research process
that gives a reader a summary of the information discussed in a project.
A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile
research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it.
Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the
research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the
proposed study.
The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your
proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research
project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written.
Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.
Elements of the proposal
1. Title
2. Executive summary
3. Significance of study
4. Problem statement
5. Objectives
6. Hypothesis
7. Reviewing the literature
8. Research design
9. Duration of the study
10.Costing and budget
11.References

Formulation of research problem
After the problem has been selected, it must be definitely formulated and stated.
Ability to formulate a viable research problem that is concise with adequate theoretical
support and feasible solution strategies.
There are five components to helps find out the problem:
1. Research consumer:

There must be a person or group, who has some difficulty. The person may be a
researcher himself and the group also may be researchers or scientists.
2. Research – consumer’s objectives:
The research – consumer must have something he wants to get at or some ends he
desires.
3. Alternative means to meet the objective:
The research consumer must have available alternative means for obtaining the
objectives he desires.
4. Doubt in regard to selection of alternatives:
The existence of alternative courses of action not enough. the research consumer
must have some doubt as to which alternative to select.
5. There must be one or more environments:
A change in environment may produce or remove a problem.
Source of research problem
The research problems may be selected from the following sources:
• Theory of one's own interest
• Daily problems
• Technological changes
• Unexplored areas
• Discussions with supervisor
Definition of the problem
It implies the separation of the problem from the complex of difficulties and needs . it
means to put a fence around it , to separate it by careful distinctions from like questions
found in related situation of need . it is important to define and elucidate the problem as
a whole and further define all technical and unusual terms employs in the statement. By
this research worker removes the chance of misinterpretation of any these crucial terms.
The definition helps to establish the frame of reference with which the researcher
approaches the problem.
Criteria of a good research problem
1. Novelty:
It should be sufficiently original so that it does not involve objectionable
duplication. The study should employ the most recent data.
2. Interesting :
The problem should be interesting tor the investigator himself. If he is not
interested in it , he will not be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come
at every step in research.
3. Importance :

It should be significant enough and involve an important principle or practice.
4. Feasibility or Amenability
The problem should be good for the investigator. He should be able to carryit to
successful conclusion.
5. Availability of data :
The research worker should ensure the availability of valid and reliable
datagathering devices and procedures.
6. Availability of co-operation:
The investigator must make sure that necessary permission and cooperation will be
readily available .
7. Availability of guidance:
Every research activity needs the patronage of a guide and the approval and
sanction of a competent authority.
8. Aim of research :
The aim of research also influences the selection of the problem . if it is producer
research , the problem will be studied to enhance existing knowledge for its own
sake. If it is consume type, the results should be fit for immediate application.
9. Level of research:
The nature and scope of a study will be determined in the light of levels likes
,Master's degree, M.phil. degree and Ph.D .
10. Experience and creativity
Good research problems stem from a clear understanding of the theoretical ,
empirical and practice aspects of the subject derived from personal experience and
from a through review of the literature.
How to formulate the research problem
There are three components to proceed the problem as follow:
1. The originating questions:
These questions represent the beginning of certain difficulties of challenges which
formulated in such specific terms so as to indicate where exactly the answers to
them can be searched for, attain the status of a research problem.
2. Rationale of questions
Rationale is the statement of reasons why a particular question is worth putting
across. The rationale states how the answer to the question will contribute to theory
and/or practice.
3. Specifying questions
This is the phase of culmination in the process of formulating a research problem.
Necessary conditions for formulation of research problem
The following are the conditions that experience has proved to be conductive to
formulation of significant research problems:
1. Systematic immersion in the subject matter through first-hand observation

2. Study of relevant literature on the subject
3. Discussions with persons having rich practical experience in the field of study.
Literature Review:
Reviewing the literature is an essential preliminary task in order to acquaint
yourself with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest. It is integral
part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every operational
step. It can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but it is also rewarding. This
step (Reviewing literature) brings clarity and focus to your research problem, improves
your methodology, broadens your knowledge, and contextualizes your findings.
Procedures for reviewing the literature:
1. Searching for existing literature in your area of study.
2. Reviewing the literature selected.
3. Developing a theoretical framework.
4. Developing a conceptual framework.
Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section.
However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough
review of the literature. The literature review involves a systematic study and analyze
of documented ideas in the areas of study.
Ideas in the literature may be used to justify the research approach, the selection
of methods, and to demonstration that the research contributes something new to the
present state of knowledge.
For a proper literature review, the following questions should be explored:
What are the basic ideas, concepts and terms in the area of research?
Where is the source(s) of the current body of knowledge in the area of research and
how is it presented?
How is knowledge structured and organized in the areas of research?
Who are the key authorities and how are sources cited and listed in the research
communication?
What are the major current questions, issues and debates about in the area of
research?
What are the techniques currently used in conceptualizing, representing, analyzing,
designing, implementing and evaluation in the research area.
Benefits of conducting the review of literatures:
1. Reviewing previous literatures helps us to avoid investigation a problem to topic
are already investigated
2. It facilities choosing research topic especially for novice researchers

3. Through review of literature we discover the problems and mistakes into which the
previous researchers fell and try to avoid them .
objectives : objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since
these objectives inform a reader of what you want to achieve through the study , it is
extremely important to word them clearly an specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two heading :
1. Main objectives:
Main objectives is an overall statement of the thrust of your study . it is also a
statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or
establish.
2. Subobjectives:
Subobjectives should be numerically listed they should be worded clearly. Make
sure that each subobjective contains only one aspect of the study.
Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing your objectives . the objective
should start with word such as 'to determine' ,' to find ', 'to ascertain' ,'to measure',
and ' to explore'.
Characteristics of objectives
The way of the main and subobjectives are worded determine how your research
is classified (e.g. descriptive , correlational or experimental).
Irrespective of the type of research , the objectives should be expressed in such
a way that the wording clearly , completely and specifically communicates to your
readers your intention.
There is no place for ambiguity , non-specificity or incompleteness ,either in the
wording of your objectives or in the idea they communicate.
The following figure displays the characteristics of the wording of objectives
in relation to the type of research study.
If the study is primarily descriptive , the main objective should clearly , complete, and
specific describe the major focus of the study.
specific Identify the
main variable to
be correlated
completeclear Identify the
direction of the
relationship
Descriptive studies
Correlational studies experimental and non( -experimental)
Hypothesis- testing studies

If the study is correlational in nature, in addition to the above three properties , the
wording of the main objective should include the main variables being correlated. If
the overall thrust of the study is to test a hypothesis , the wording of main objectives ,
in addition to above , should indicate the direction of the relationship being tested .
Hypothesis
Definition of Hypothesis:
There are many definition of hypothesis.
• According to Kerlinger , " A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the
relationship between two or more variable "
• Webster's international dictioanary of English language ," A hypothesis is a
proposition condition , or principle which is assumed , perhaps withour belief,
in order to draw out its logical consequences and by this method to test its accord
with facts which are known or may be determined.
• Black and Champion ," A hypothesis is a tentative statement about something ,
the validity of which is usually unknown"
• Bailey ," A hypothesis is a proposition that is stated in a testable form and that
predicts a particular relationship between two or more variables."
• Grinnel and Stothers, '' a hypothesis is written in such a way that it cat proven of
disproven by valid and reliable data- it is in order to obtain these data that we
perform our study "
From the above definitions it is apparent that a hypothesis has certain characteristics:
1. It is a tentative proposition.
2. It is validity is unknown.
3. In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more variables.
Importance of hypothesis
The important of hypotheses lies in their ability to bring direction , specificity ,
and focus to a research study. They tell a researcher what specific information to
collect and thereby provide greater focus.
The importance of hypothesis can be more specifically stated as :
1. It provide direction to research . it define what is relevant what is irrelevant
2. It is a guide to the thinking process and the process of discovery
3. It focuses research. Without it research would be like a random and aimless
wandering
4. It prevent blind research. prevents indiscriminate gathering of data which may
later turn out to be irrelevant
5. It places clear and specific goals before us .
6. It serves the function of linking together related facts and in formation and
organizing them into one comprehensible whole.
7. It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions.

The function of hypothesis
A hypothesis is important terms of bringing clarity to the research problem.
specifically a hypothesis serves the following functions:
• The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells what
specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
• A hypothesis tells what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby
providing focus to the study.
• As it provides a focus , the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity
in a study.
• A hypothesis may enable to add to the formulation of theory . it enables you
to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.
Characteristics of a hypothesis:
There are a number considerations to keep in mind when constructing a hypothesis
, as they are important for valid verification.
• A hypothesis should be simple, specific and conceptually clear.
• A hypothesis should be capable of verification .
• A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of knowledge. A
hypothesis should be operationalisable.
• A hypothesis should be limited in scope
• A hypothesis must explain the facts that give rise to need of explanation.
Different forms of hypothesis:
The hypothesis can be stated in a number of forms which are:
1. Null form:
It stated that no significant difference exists between the variables concerned.
This form of statement more readily defines the mathematical model to be
utilized in the statistical test of the hypothesis.
2. Prediction form:
It is chosen because it allows the research worker to state principles which he
actually expects to emerge from the ixperiment . this type of hypothesis is more
useful in action research studies.
3. Declarative form:
It generally states a relationship between the variables concerned
4. Question form :
Phase 1
Formulate your
hunch or
assumption
Phase 2
Collect the
required data
Phase 3
Analyze data to
draw conclusions
about the hunch-
true of false

The above mentioned hypothesis in question form may read . for example "is
there difference in the instructional standards of boys and girls school?"
Type of hypothesis
There are two categories of hypothesis :
1. Research hypothesis :
a. Hypothesis of difference:
A hypothesis in which a researcher stipulates that there will be a
difference but does not specify its magnitude.
b. Hypothesis of point-prevalence:
A hypothesis in which a researcher may have enough knowledge and its
likely outcomes to speculate almost the exact prevalence of the situation.
c. Hypothesis of association
This type of hypothesis stipulates the extent of the relationship in terms of the
effect of different treatment groups on the dependent variable or the
prevalence of a phenomenon in different population groups.
2. Alternate hypothesis
Its main function is to explicitly specify the relationship that will be considered
as true in case the research proves to be wrong.
Null hypothesis: A hypothesis that there is no difference between two situations
, groups , outcomes, or the prevalence of a condition. It is usually written as H0
Type of hypothesis can be categories also as :
1. Directional hypotheses:
These are statements that show not only the direction of the assumed relationship
between the variables but also the magnitude of the effect of a variable on another
variable.
For example:
- Children with high IQ will exhibit more anxiety than children with low IQ.
- " ….is more than…..""….will be lesser than…." 2. Non-directional:
They are statements that assume the existence of a significance relationship
between two or more variables or show the effect of the independent variable on the
dependent variable without stating the direction of that relationship or effect.
For example:
- Students' background of the world have some effects on their reading achievement.
- There is a difference in the anxiety level of the children of high IQ and those of
low IQ.
- " there is a difference between…." 3. Null Hypotheses:
They are based on the assumption that relationship between different variables does
not exist at all or if it exists it is not significant. We use it with the other types of

hypotheses to assure a very high level of confidence that the results are not due to
any chance but to the treatment.
Difficulties in the formulation of hypothesis:
There are a number of difficulties from which a beginner may suffer at the stage of
formulating a good hypothesis:
• Lack of knowledge and clarity of theoretical framework of the area in shich the
investigator chooses to work
• Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically
• Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to
be able to phrase the hypothesis properly
• Vagueness of the statement. For example, a course in ethics will make a student
a more ethical adult.
Sources of hypothesis :
There are two kind of sources:
1. Individual sources:
It includes researcher's own thought , imagination sentiments,view and sights.
2. External sources:
It include socilolgy , humanities, literature, images which are related to men and
their several parts .
Goode and hatt given the following resources:
a. Central culture
b. Scientific theories
c. Analogies
d. Personal experience.
Type of hypothesis
te hypothesisAlterna Research hypothesis
Hypothesis of
association
Hypothesis of
point-prevalence
Hypothesis
of difference
Hypothesis of no
difference (null hypothesis)
Null
hypothesis

Unit 4 Sampling
Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or
totality on the basis of which a judgement or inference about the aggregate or totality
is made. In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire
population by examining only a part of it.
The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample, their
selection process or technique is called sample design and the survey conducted on the
basis of sample is described as sample survey.
Need of sampling:
Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as:
1. Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than
a census study and produces results at a relatively faster speed.
2. Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally
conducted by trained and experienced investigators.
3. Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many
members.
4. Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item
under study.
5. Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in
obtaining information concerning some characteristic of the population.
Some Fundamental Definitions
1. Universe/Population: From a statistical point of view, the term „Universe‟refers
to the total of the items or units in any field of inquiry, whereas the term
„population‟ refers to the total of items about which information is desired.
2. Sampling frame:
The elementary units or the group or cluster of such units may form the basis of
sampling process in which case they are called as sampling units. A list containing
all such sampling units is known as sampling frame. Thus sampling frame consists
of a list of items from which the sample is to be drawn.
3. Sampling design:
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling
frame. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in
selecting some sampling units from which inferences about the population is
drawn. Sampling design is determined before any data are collected.
4. Statisitc(s) and parameter(s):
A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a characteristic
of a population. Thus, when we work out certain measures such as mean, median,

mode or the like ones from samples, then they are called statistic(s) for they
describe the characteristics of a sample.
5. error:
Sample surveys do imply the study of a small portion of the population and as such
there would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the information
collected. This inaccuracy may be termed as sampling error or error variance.
Type of sampling
Sampling method can be divided into two categories: probability and nonprobability
sampling and each one of them has various subcategories and a number of ways of
selecting the sample can be used. Both probability and non-probability sampling
methods seek to gather data that provide a fair representation of the larger population,
although the definition of "representative" varies between the two methods.

1. probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is also known as „random sampling‟ or „chance sampling‟.
Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity
which states that if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will
have the same composition and characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why
random sampling is considered as the best technique of selecting a representative
sample.
There are four types of probability sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling:
Each and every individual of population has an equal opportunity of being
included in the sample and also the selection of on individual or unit is in no way
dependent upon the selection of another individual. The implications of simple
random sampling are:
(a) It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into
the sample; and all choices are independent of one another.
(b) It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being
chosen.
2. Stratified Random Sampling :
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is generally applied in order to
obtain a representative sample. Under stratified sampling the population is divided
into several sub-populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total
Type of Sampling
Random/Probability
Sampling
Non-Random /Non-
Probability Sampling
Mixed Sampling
Simple
Random
Stratified
Random
Cluster
Random
proportionate
stratified
Disproportionate
stratified
Single
stage
Multi-
stage
Double
stage
Judgmental
Accidental
Quota
Snowball
Systematic
Sampling

population (the different sub-populations are called „strata‟) and then we select items
from each stratum to constitute a sample.
3.Cluster Random Sampling:
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way in which a sample
can be taken is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then
to randomly select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), with the
ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in these small areas or clusters.
4. Systematic Sampling :
In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith item
on a list. Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling. An element of
randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick
up the unit with which to start.
Systematic sampling has certain plus points. It can be taken as an improvement
over a simple random sample in as much as the systematic sample is spread more evenly
over the entire population. It is an easier and less costlier method of sampling and can
be conveniently used even in case of large populations. But there are certain dangers too
in using this type of sampling. If there is a hidden periodicity in the population,
systematic sampling will prove to be an inefficient method of sampling.
2. Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any
basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included
in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by different names such as
deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgement sampling. Non-probability
sampling is almost always used for qualitative data collection methods and can be used
for quantitative methods for which statistical inference is not desired. Some reasons for
using non-probability
1. The subjects ( or objects) may be scarce or hard to locate.
2. The researcher may want to be able to compare some subset of the population to
the larger population of interest.
3. The researcher may want to compare groups, but not use stratified probability s 4.
The researcher may need to rely on volunteers.
5. The researcher may want to establish specific criteria used to select participants.
There five types of non-probability sampling :
1. Accidental (incidental ) sampling :
It applies to those samples that are taken because they are most frequently available
. but it is not representative of the population, and it is not free from error and
parametric statistics cannot be used;
2. judgment sampling:

This involve the selection of a group from the population on the basis of available
information though. It is an economical method . it is to be representative to the total
population . it includes uncontrolled variation.
3. Quota sampling :
It combined both judgment and probability sampling . the population is classified into
several categories, the size of population falling into each category is decided.
Therefore a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed, and the observer is allowed to sample
as he likes .it is not representative sample.
4. Purposive sampling:
It is selected by some arbitrary method because it is known to be representative of the
total population. In purposive sampling , inability to make generalization and utilize
the inferential parametric statistics.
5. Snowball sampling:
In snowball , researcher start by identifying a few respondents that match the criteria
for inclusion in his study, and then ask them to recommend others they know who
also meet selection criteria
Criteria of selecting a sampling procedure:
1. Inappropriate sampling frame.
2. Defective measuring device.
3. Non- respondents.
4. Indeterminacy principle.
5. Natural basis in the reporting of data.
Step in sample design:
While developing a sampling design , the research must pay attention to the following
points:
1. Type of universe.
2. Sampling unit .
3. Source list.
4. Size of sample.
5. Parameters of interest.
6. Budgetary constraint.
Characteristics of a good sample design :
From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample
design as under:
• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
• Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.

• Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a
better way.
• Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in
general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
Factors while determining the size of sampling :
Size of sample refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to form the
sample . there some factors must be kept while determining the size of sampling :
1. Size of sample should be neither be excessively large, nor too small
2. It should optimum, that means efficiency , representativeness, reliability and
flexibility.
3. The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance
usually a bigger sample is needed
4. The size of population must be kept in view
5. The parameter of interest in research study must be kept in view
6. Budgetary constraint must be taken into consideration , when decided the sample
size .
Data Collection
Collecting data comes after defining the problem and designing the research. There
are two major approaches to gathering information about a situation , person, problem ,
or phenomenon. Based upon these broad approaches to in information gathering , data are
categorized as :
1. Secondary data
2. Primary data
Information gathered using the first approach is said to be collected from secondary
sources, where as the sources used in the second approach are called primary data. There
are some factors must be kepts in consideration when selecting the method of collecting
data :
1. Nature , scope ,and object enquiry
2. Availability of funds
3. Time factor
4. Precision required.
Methods of data collection

Collecting data using Primary Sources:
Several methods can be used to collect primary data . the choice of method
depends upon the purpose of the study , the resources available , and the skills of
the researcher.
1. Observation:
Observation is a purposeful , systematic and selective way of watching and
listing to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. The observation method
is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences.
We can classify two types of observation
From the point of view of structure:
1- structured observation.( descriptive study).
2- unstructured observation. (exploratory study)
From the point of view of researcher's sharing:
1- Participant observation.
2- Non-participant observation. ( disguised observation)
From point of view of control:
1- Controlled observation. Systematic
2- Uncontrolled observation. Simple
Types of observation based on objectives 1-
Purposive observation.
2- Accidental observation. (Newton)
Advantages:
1- the subjective bias is eliminated if observation is done accurately.
Documents
structured
Mailed
questionnaire
Unstructrued
Observation Interviewing Questionnaire
Participant
Non-
Participant
Methods of data collection
Primary Sources Secondary sources
-Gov publications
–Earlier research
-Census
-Personal records
-Client histories
-Service records
Collective
questionnaire

2- The information is obtained records what is currently happened. It does not talk
about what happened in the past or what we expect to happen in the future.
3- It is independent of respondents' willingness.
4- It is suitable to deal with the respondents who are not capable to give verbal reports
of their feeling for one reason or another.
Limitation
1- It is an expensive method.
2- The information provided by this method is limited.
3- Unforeseen factors may interfere with observational task.
4- Some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this
method to collect data effectively.
2. Interview
Interview is a conversation between interviewer and respondents with the
purpose of certain information. The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This
method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone
interviews.
Research who use the interview as a tool for collecting data should think about
four concepts time , location, style, and recording. The interview can be classified
according According to their formality:
1- Formal interviews which require extensive preparation, formal language and time
and setting planning.
2- Informal interviews which do not require such things.
According to their topic:
1- Focused ( structured) interviews in which participants concentrate on the topic and
that has previously determined and questions are fixed.
2- Free interviews in which participants may go from one topic to another.
• Based on the degree of control
: 1- Structured 2-
Unstructured.
• Based on situation
1- Face to face interviews
2- Video conferencing interviews
3- Telephone interviews
4- Computer assisted interviews
Advantages

1. The interview is more appropriate for complex situations
2. It is useful for collecting in depth information
3. Information can be supplemented
4. Interviewing has a wider application
5. Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method
6. The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions.
This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group
discussions may also be held.
7. Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
Disadvantages:
1. Interviewing is time-consuming and expensive.
2. The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interaction.
3. The quality of data depends upon the quality of the interviewer.
4. The quality of data may vary when many interviewers are used.
5. The researcher may introduce his/ her bias.
6. The interviewer may be biased.
3. Questionnaire
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
enquiries. It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and
public organizations and even by governments.
In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A
questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order
on a form or set of forms.
Researcher should care about the three main parts of questionnaire:
1. General form: it should be definite, concrete , and predetermined. Form of
questionnaire can be ranking, category , scale , list , grid, verbal or open , or
close or open.
2. Questions sequences : it should be written in proper sequence , reduce
misunderstanding . it must be clear and smooth-moving
3. Question formulation and warding : it must be clear, impartial , logical ,easy to
understand, simple and concrete.
There are seven question types:
1. Verbal or open: This type is used to get basic information on the research topic.
It takes the form of a single or group of open-ended questions asked to the
participants with open space for their answer.
2. List: In this type, answers to each question item are arranged as a list from
which the respondent may select.

3. Category: In this type, each question has a list of many different choices; each
represents a range or a category from which subjects can choose.
4. Ranking: In this type, subjects are asked to rank a group of items according to
certain criteria.
5. Scale: In this type, question items are arranged as a list of statements and
answers represent a scale.
6. Quantity: In this type, subjects are asked to select a number that represents the
amount of some characteristics.
7. Grid: In this type, question items and answers are arranged in grid tables.
8. Closed-open questions
Advantages :
1. It is less expensive.
2. It offers greater anonymity.
3. It is easy to administer.
4. It can be used with other methods of data collection as subsidiary tools.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more
dependable and reliable.
6. It does not require direct contact with the researcher.
Disadvantages:
1. Application is limited .
2. Response rate is low
3. There is a self selecting bias
4. Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking 5. Spontaneous responses are not
allowed for .
6. The response to a question may be influenced by the response to other
questions
7. It is possible to consult others.
8. A response can not be supplemented with other information.
4. tests
Tests are instruments used mainly for measuring attitude or performance before
and after certain treatments. They can also be used to evaluate the progress of
participants in certain program after certain period of time.
There are different types of tests. They will be divided into three categories.
A. Classifying tests according to the purpose:
1. Pretests: They are given before the treatment to measure the homogeneity of
the groups of the samples.
2. Posttests: They are given after the treatment to measure the effects of the
treatment on them.
B. Classifying tests according to their source:

1. Self-developed tests
2. Ready-made tests
C. Classifying tests according to their structure:
1.Oral tests
2. Essay tests
3. Completion tests
4. Multiple-choice tests
5. True/false tests
6. Matching tests 7. Arranging items tests
8. Production tests.
• Elicited imitation
• Elicited translation
• Communication games Role-play tasks
Collecting data using secondary Sources:
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data
which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
There are occasions when data has already been collected by someone else and you
need only to extract the required information for the purpose of the study. The secondary
sources can be grouped in to the following categories:
• Government or semi-government publication
• Earlier research
• Personal records
• Mass media
Problems with using data from secondary sources:
When using data from secondary sources , you need to be careful as there may be certain
problems wit availability, format, and quality of data. While using such data some issues
should keep in mind are:
• Validity and reliability : the validity of information may vary markedly
from source to source.
• Personal bias: the use of information from personal diaries , newspapers,
and magazines may have the problem of personal bias.
• Availability of data : it is common for beginning researchers to assume
that the required data will be available.
• Format: before deciding to use data from secondary sources it is equally
important to ascertain that the data are available in the required format.
Unit 5
Analysis:
Analysis is the process of examining the collected data or the content under study
by breaking them up into original components. Data may have different forms; it may

be linguistic units such as words, sounds, phrases or sentences, it may be pictures, lines
or numbers. These data are called raw materials. They do not have any benefit if they
are not analyzed to reflect a complete meaning.
Analysis involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences. The analysis of data
requires a number of closely related operations.
Processing operation
• Editing of data is the process of examining the collected raw data( especially in
survey) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. It is
done to assure that the data are accurate. It is also the procedure that improves
the quality of the data for coding.
• Coding operation is the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or
classes.
• Classification is the process of classifying data into homogeneous groups.
• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put
in the form of the tables.
Analysis can be categorized as :
• Descriptive analysis and Inferential analysis
Descriptive analysis: is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This
study provide us with profiles of companies, work groups ,and other subject on
any a multiple of characteristics such as size , preferences.
Inferential analysis : is often known as statistical analysis
• Correlation analysis and causal analysis
Correlation analysis : studies the joint variation of two or more variables for
determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables.
Causal analysis: is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect
change in another variable.
• Linguistic analysis and statistical analysis
Linguistic analysis: is an analytical technique used by the research to study
different subjects, areas and topics of a language. According to the name one can
guess that the analysis can base on the language aspects as phoneme, morpheme,
words ….. and may the analysis aims to study the phenomenon of the language .
In linguistic analysis there are many methods which can deal with different
aspects of a language. These methods are Error analysis , Discourse analysis, and
Performance analysis.

Statistical analysis:
It is the science of analyzing and classifying data numerically for the purpose
of reaching numerical conclusions through which phenomena under investigation can
be interpreted and decision can be made.
Statistics requires quantitative data collected through tests, questionnaires,
interviews and observations. When these data are collected , they should be arranged,
classified and turned into numerical data using certain coding procedures. When the
raw data is coded each number is called value. There are two methods for
coding raw data:
1- Scoring scheme is usually used with data collected through tests. Each question
has a mark and the score of each subject ( person) is summed up and matched
against the highest score viz. how many items are there? How many subjects? And
what is the highest score? Then make a table present that data.
2- Calculation is used with data collected through observation, Interviews and
questionnaires . It may involve the basic mathematic process .
The scoring and calculating processes result in numerical values which
determine the type of quantitative data. These values determine the type of statistical
analysis would be used. The values collected from the samples are called statistics and
the values collected from the whole population parameter.
Two types of statistical application :
1. Descriptive statistical analysis.
2. Inferential statistical analysis.
1.Descriptive analysis :
Descriptive statistical analysis limits generalization to the particular group
of individual observed. It is applied to make these values meaningful for the
purpose of the simplifying the concept , these values are presented in the simplest
form of statistical presentation . one of the technique that can be used to categorize
obtained values is :
a. Measures of central tendency or average ( Mean, Median, Mode)
b. Measures of spread of dispersion (Range, Variance, Standard deviation)
c. Measures of relative position (Standard score, Percentile rank, Percentile score)
d. Measures of relationship ( Coefficient of correlation)
2.Inferential analysis :
It is used to analyze the data collected from the sample or samples in order
to draw conclusion from such data to be generalized to the population from which the
sample is taken. Unlike descriptive analysis, inferential statistics requires random

sampling ( except with chi square), intervals and hypotheses testing of the means. The
means can be tested through one of the following tests: 1- T-test
2- Chi square test
3- Analysis of variance
Measures of central tendency:
These measures point to the average value in a set of value. They include the
mode, the median and the mean. The three central tendency can be compared to see
the tendency of the subjects' performance in attest or questionnaire. If they are the
same , subjects follows the normal distribution .i.e the majority of the subjects
obtained average scores. If the means is greater than the mode and the median, the
majority of subjects obtained scores below average score and vice versa.
1. The Mean ( x)
The mean is the simplest measurement of central tendency and is widely used
measure. It can be computed by dividing the sum of all the scores by the number of
scores.
The mean =𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 / 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
X =Σ𝑥 / 𝑛
Where X mean
Σ sum of
𝑥 scores in a distribution
𝑛 number of scores
In case of a frequency distribution, the mean can compute by :
X = Σ fi 𝑥i / Σ fi
2. The Median (Md)
The median is the middle score in a set of scores below. It is the
midpoint. If we arrange the scores from low to high or vice versa so the middle
score is the median.
3. The Mode (Mo)
The mode refers to the number which occurs more frequently.
Measures of dispersion
Measures of dispersion ( variability) are used to measure how the scores are
spread out. The variation here to how far the scores are from each other and how far they
are from the mean. The common measure of dispersion are :
1. Range:
The range is the easiest form to measure the spread of the sores or values to find
out how far they are from each other. It can be obtained by subtracting the lowest scores
from the highest one.
Range = Highest value of an item in series - Lowest value of an item in series

2. Mean Deviation:
The mean deviation is the average of difference of the value items from some
average of the series . such difference is technically described as deviation.
Mean deviation from mean: Md=( X )= Σ │xi - X │/ n
Mean deviation from median: Md=( m)= Σ │xi - M │/ n
Mean deviation from mode: Md=( z )= Σ │xi - Z│/ n
Where symbol fro mean deviation
xi : ith values of variable x , n : number of items
X : mean , M : median , Z : mode
3. Standard Deviation:
It is most widely used measure of dispersion of a series and is commonly
denoted by the symbol „ ‟ (pronounced as sigma). Standard deviation is defined as
the square-root of the average of squares of deviations, when such deviations for the
values of individual items in a series are obtained from the arithmetic average. It is
worked out as under:
T-test:
T-test is based on t-distribution to compare between two means to find out
whether there is any difference between them. It is considered to be appropriate for
judging the significance of the sample mean and the significance of the difference
between the means of the two samples in the case of small samples when population
variance is unknown.
Where:
M1= mean of sample 1
M2= mean of sample 2
SD1= standard deviation of sample 1
SD2= standard deviation of sample 2
N1= number in sample 1
N2= number in sample 2
Chi-square
Chi-square is a measure for how far the observed figure differ from the expected
figure .it is used to judge the significance of population variance i.e. we can use the test
to judge if a random sample has been drawn from a normal population with mean and
with specified variance.

Where:
Expected = the mean
Observed = the mark
Hypothesis Testing :
Hypothesis testing determines the validity of the assumption (technically
described as null hypothesis) with a view to choose between two conflicting
hypotheses about the value of a population parameter. Hypothesis testing helps to
decide on the basis of a sample data, whether a hypothesis about the population is
likely to be true or false.
Statisticians have developed several tests of hypotheses (also known as the tests
of significance) for the purpose of testing of hypotheses which can be classified as:
(a) Parametric tests or standard tests of hypotheses; and
(b) Non-parametric tests or distribution-free test of hypotheses.
Flow diagram of testing of hypothesis

(a) Parametric tests:
Parametric tests usually assume certain properties of the parent
population from which we draw samples. Assumptions like observations come
from a normal population, sample size is large, assumptions about the population
parameters like mean, variance, etc., must hold good before parametric tests can
be used. parametric tests require measurement equivalent to at least an interval
scale.
important parametric tests:
The important parametric tests are: (1) z-test; (2) t-test; (3) 2-test, and
(4) F-test. All these tests are based on the assumption of normality i.e., the source
of data is considered to be normally distributed.
1. z-test: is based on the normal probability distribution and is used for judging the
significance of several statistical measures, particularly the mean.
2. t-test : is based on t-distribution and is considered an appropriate test for judging
the significance of a sample mean or for judging the significance of difference
between the means of two samples in case of small sample(s) when population
variance is not known (in which case we use variance of the sample as an estimate
of the population variance).
3. 2 –test: is based on chi-square distribution and as a parametric test is used for
comparing a sample variance to a theoretical population variance.
4. F-test: is based on F-distribution and is used to compare the variance of the
twoindependent samples. This test is also used in the context of analysis of variance
(ANOVA) for judging the significance of more than two sample means at one and
the same time.
(b)Non-Parametric tests:
Non-parametric tests do not make an assumption about the parameters of the
population and thus do not make use of the parameters of the distribution. In other words,
under non-parametric or distribution-free tests we do not assume that a particular
distribution is applicable, or that a certain value is attached to a parameter of the
population. most non-parametric tests assume only nominal or ordinal data.
Non-parametric tests are :
1. Sign Tests:
The sign test is one of the easiest parametric tests. Its name comes from the fact that
it is based on the direction of the plus or minus signs of observations in a sample and not
on their numerical magnitudes. The sign test may be one of the following two types: (a)
One sample sign test; (b) Two sample sign test.
2. Fisher-Irwin Test:

Fisher-Irwin test is a distribution-free test used in testing a hypothesis concerning
no difference among two sets of data. It is employed to determine whether one can
reasonably assume.
3. McNemer Test
McNemer test is one of the important nonparametric tests often used when the
data happen to be nominal and relate to two related samples. As such this test is specially
useful with before-after measurement of the same subjects.
4. Wilcoxon Matched-pairs Test (or Signed Rank Test)
In various research situations in the context of two-related samples (i.e., case of
matched paires such as a study where husband and wife are matched or when we compare
the output of two similar machines or where some subjects are studied in determine both
direction and magnitude of difference between matched values, we can use an important
non-parametric test viz., Wilcoxon matched-paires test.
5. Rank Sum Tests
Rank sum tests are a whole family of test, but we shall describe only two such tests
commonly used viz., the U test and the H test. U test is popularly known as
WilcoxonMann-Whitney test, whereas H test is also known as Kruskal-Wallis test.
6. One Sample Runs Test
One sample runs test is a test used to judge the randomness of a sample on the basis of
the order in which the observations are taken.
7. Spearman‟s Rank Correlation
When the data are not available to use in numerical form for doing correlation analysis
but when the information is sufficient to rank the data as first, second, third, and so forth,
we quite often use the rank correlation method and work out the coefficient of rank
correlation. It was developed by famous statistician Charles Spearman in the early
1900s and as such it is also known as Spearman‟s rank correlation coefficient.
8. Kendall‟s Coefficient of Concordance
Kendall‟s coefficient of concordance, represented by the symbol W, is an important non-
parametric measure of relationship. It is used for determining the degree of association
among several (k) sets of ranking of N objects or individuals.
Parametric tests Non-parametric tests

They are applied using a model( A table
to consult).
More powerful tests in that they are
more likely to reject the null hypothesis
when it is false.
Assume that the variable measured is
normally distributed in the population.
Variance of the comparison groups is
equal.
The researcher is less likely to commit
a type II error.
Used when the data are represented in
an interval or a ratio scale.
They are applied without a model
Less powerful tests in that they are less
likely to reject the null hypothesis when it is
false
Requires more observations to achieve type
I and type II errors
Do not make assumption about the
distribution of variables in the population
The researcher is more likely to commit a
type II errors
Used when the data are presented in a
nominal or ordinal scale
Displaying Data
Having analyzed the data , the next task is to present findings effectively to readers. The
main purpose of using data-display techniques is to make the finding clear and easily
understood . there are many ways of presenting information. Two main data presentation
are: tables and graphs(charts)
1. Tables:
Tables are the most common method of presenting analyzed data. Tables offer a
useful means of presenting large amounts of detailed information in a small space.
Structure of table:
A table has five parts:
1. Title: it indicates the table's number and describes the type of data it contains
.
2. Stub: the subcategories of variable , listed along the y-axis . it is a vertical
listing of categories or individual about which information is given in the
columns of the table.
3. Column heading: listed along the x-axis, it displays information about a
variable.
4. Body: the cells housing the analyzed data.
5. Supplementary notes of footnotes: there are four type: source note, general
note, notes on specific parts of the table , and notes on the level of probability
if the data are taken from another sources , you have an obligation to
acknowledge this.

Type of tables:
Depending upon the number of variables about which information is displayed , tables
can be categorized as :
1. Univariate: containing information about one variable , also called frequency tables
2. Bivariate: containing information about two variables, also called crosstabulations
3. Polyvariate/Multivariate: containing information about more than two variables .
2. Graph(charts):
The main objective of a graph is to present data in a way that is easy to understand
and interpret , and interesting to look at . graphs can be constructed for every type
of data (quantitative and qualitative) and for any type of variable (measured on
nominal , ordinal, interval , or ratio scale).
When constructing a graph of any type it is important to be acquainted with the
following points:
1. A graphic presentation is constructed in relation to two axes: horizontal (
abscissa or x-axis) , and the vertical (ordinate or y-axis)
2. A graph like a table, should have a title that describes its contents. The axes
should be labeled also.
3. A graph should be drawn to an appropriate scale.
4. The type of graph depends on the type of data , and the number of variables that
will be displayed.
Type of graph

1. Histogram graph: it consists of a series of rectangles drawn next to other without
any space between them ,each representing the frequency of a category or
subcategory. It can drawn for both categorical and continuous variables.
2. Bar graph: it used for displaying categorical data . it is identical to histogram ,
except in a bar chart the rectangle representing the various frequencies are spaced
.it is used for
variables
measured on
nominal or
ordinal scales.
3. Pie graph: it is called also circle graph , it is divided in to sections in accordance
with the magnitude of each sub-category .it can be drawn for both qualitative data
and variables measured on a continuous scale but grouped into categories.
4. Line graph : a set
of data measured
on a continuous
interval or a ratio
scale can
displayed
using line graph.
Line diagram is a
useful wau of visually conveying the change of when long-term trends in a

situation need to be studied , or change in the subcategory of a variable is measured
.
5. Scattergram graph : when you want to show visually how one variable change in
relation to change in the other variable , a scattergram is effective. For scattergram
,both variable must be measured either on interval or ratio scale and data on both
variables need to be available in absolute value for each observation.
Validity and delimitations of research findings
Validity is described as the degree to which a research study measures , it intends to
measure.
The traditional criteria for validity fing their roots in a positivist traditional and to an
extent , positivism has been defined by a systemic theory of validity .
There are two forms of validity :
1. Internal validity : it refers to the validity of the measurement and test itself. It has
to done with factors , which may directly affect outcomes.
2. External validity: it refers to the ability to generalize the finding to the target
population
Internal validity External validity

1.Size of population 1.Population characteristics
2.Time to collection data 2.Data collection methods
3.History 3.Research environment
4.Instruments 4.Independent variable
5.Others 5.The affect of time
There are three types of validity :
1. Content validity: it is the extent to which a measuring instruments provide
adequate coverage of topic under the study
2. Criterion-related validity: it relates to cure ability to predict some outcome of
estimate the existence of some current condition.
3. Construct validity : it is the design to which scores on a test can be accounted
for by explanatory construct of sound theory
Delimitations
Delimitations describe what this particular study does not cover. The delimitation of
study are those characteristics that define the scope , define the boundaries of the
inquiry as determined by the conscious exclusionary.
Decision that were made throughout the development of the proposal among these ,are
the choice of objectives and questions , variable of interest , alternative theoretical
perspectives that could have been adopted.
Unit 6 Report writing and evaluations
Report writing is a basic task of the researcher, since no research can be
completed without its report. In fact research without report considered as a house without
roof.
Research Report: is study culminates in the writing of a report, which is a too for
communicating the various aspects of the study, viz., the problem or topic investigated
,the method employed to investigate, the objective, scope and limitation. However, prior
to writing the report, its proper planning is essential.
Types of report:
On basis of approach:
1. Business report and memorandum.
2. Project report.

3. Dissertation.
4. Commission.
5. Commission‟s enquiry report.
6. Thesis.
On the basis of presentation:
1. Inductive reports.
2. Deductive reports.
3. Step by step reports.
4. Time – sequence reports.
Principles for writing report
1. The language should be simple, clear and unambiguous. Short sentences should be
used as far as possible.
2. The phraseology should be adapted to suit the occasion. No technical terms or
business phraseology should be used which are not likely to understood by the
person (s) for whom the report is intended.
3. In writing reports, negative statements should be avoided as far as possible.
4. Reports written by an individual should be written in the first person (I), but reports
submitted by a committee or sub-committee must be written in an impersonal
manner, i.e., in the third person.
5. The report should preferably be written in the narrative form setting out the facts,
findings and recommendations in such a logical way that they present a coherent
picture.
6. The data presented in support of the recommendations should be accurate, reliable
and complete. These should be properly classified, tabulated and analyzed so that
they can give a realistic and concrete reading of any problem under consideration.
7. The conclusions and recommendations should be based on factual data (not
impressions) and unbiased so that they can be depended upon by the recipient (s)
for deciding on a course of action.
8. The report should be as brief as possible in keeping with the purpose for which it
is needed. But clearness should not be sacrificed for the sake of conciseness. The
report should be to the point, using the minimum number of words and avoiding
all repetitions and exaggerations. It the writer sticks to these qualities, the report
will automatically remain concise.
Style and format of report writing:
Preliminary section:

- Title page ( name of problem, author, degree, and institute, date of study) -
Approval sheet.
- Acknowledgements (if any). - Preface or forward. - Table of contents - List
of tables (if any).
- List of figures (if any).
Main body of the report(provide complete outline of the research repot with all detail)
Introduction
-Significance of the problem.
- Statements of the problem.
- Purpose of the study.
- Assumptions and delimitations.
- Definition of the important terms.
- Statements of hypothesis.
- Assumptions under lying the hypotheses
Review of related literature or analysis of previous research. Design of the study -
Procedures used.
- Methods of gathering data.
- Description of data gathering instruments.
Presentation and analysis of data -
Text.
- Tables.
- Figures.
Summary and conclusions
- Brief restatement of problem and procedures.
- Description of procedures used.
- Principal findings and conclusions.
- Recommendations for future research.
References section:
- Bibliography.
- Appendix.
- Index, if any.
Steps of Writing Report
Writing report comes after slow, brains- taking and accurate inductive work. The writing
of report follows some steps.
1- Logical analysis of the subject matter.
It is the first step in which the researcher has to develop the subject of the
research. There are two ways of developing a subject:
• The Logical development which is based on the mental connection and
association between one thing and another. It may develop from simple to complex.
• The chronological development which is based on the connection or
sequence in time and occurrence.

2- Preparation of the final outline.
It is the next step in writing a research report. Outline is the framework of
research in which long research is constructed.
3- Preparation of the rough draft follows the second step.
In this step, the researcher contextualize his study. He writes down the
procedures and techniques which he followed to collect data along with various
limitation he faced, the technique of analysis he adopted. He has to mentions
findings , generalization and recommendation and suggestion regarding the
problem concerned.
4- Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft
It is more difficult than preparation of the rough draft because the researcher
has to revise his report from different point of views such as clearance and
ambiguity , cohesion and unity and consistent as well as he has to check the
mechanics of writing – grammar, spelling and usage.
5- Preparation of the final bibliography
It comes next in order . in this step the researcher prepares the references that
he consulted in his search . it can be divided into two parts; the first part included
the books and pamphlets and the second part is devoted to the journals and
magazines.
6- Writing the final draft
It should be in concise and objective style . The researcher should use simple
language and avoid vague expression. He has to avoid abstract terminology and
technical jargons. If there are some illustrations and examples from common
experience, they should be incorporated. But the report should not be dull, it should
enthuse and maintain others.
Evaluation of research report
Evaluation is a process of ascertaining the decision areas of concern , selecting
appropriate information , and collecting and analyzing information in order to report
summary data useful to decision makers in selecting among alternative.

Evaluation of report is based on two different parameters.
In Internal evaluate parameter, we have to evaluate the research on the basis of its parts
and the consistency of its content. Fifty percent of the evaluation is given to data
analysis for this part is the main part of the research. We study its content, language,
and the relationship between its parts.
In external evaluate parameter, we have to evaluate the cover page, size of the page,
margins, fonts and other technical works. ( structure ).
Through a critical analysis the student may gain some insight into the nature of a
research problem , the methods by which it may attacked , the difficulties inherent in
research , the ways in which data are analyzed and conclusions drawn, and the style of
the report.
The following questions suggest a possible structure for the analysis:
1. The title and abstract.
a. Are they clear and concise?
b. Do they promise no more than the study can provide?
2. The problem and hypotheses(introductory section)
a. Is the problem clearly stated?
b. Is the problem properly delimited?
c. Is the significance of the problem recognized?
d. Are hypotheses clearly stated and testable?
e. Are assumptions, limitations , and delimitations stated?
f. Are important terms defined?
3. Review of related literature (introductory section)
a. Is it adequately covered?
b. Are important findings noted?
Evaluation
research is a
process An intervention
or program
Make informed
decisions
Of reviewing In order to
That is aboutfor
- Thorough
- Reliable
- Valid
- Systematic
- Efficiency
- effectiveness
- appropriateness
- Selecting between different
interventions or programs
- Incorporating changes, and
fine- tuning for greater
effectiveness and efficiency
- Terminating the program or
intervention for better use of
resources.

c. Is it well organized?
d. Is an effective summary provided?
e. Is the cited literature directly relevant to the problem and hypotheses?
4. Method section
a. Is the research design described in detail?
b. Is it adequate?
c. Are the samples described in detail?
d. Are relevant variables recognized?
e. Are appropriate controls provided to establish experimental validity?
f. Are data-gathering instruments appropriate?
g. Are validity and reliability of the instruments established?
h. Can the sample and procedure be replicated based on the information and
references given?
5. Results section
a. Is the statistical treatment appropriate?
b. Is appropriate use made of tables and figures?
c. Is the analysis of data relationships logical, perceptive , and objective
6. Discussion section
Thank you so much

The best research method طرق البحث

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The best research method طرق البحث