Mutations are heritable changes in genetic material that can be caused spontaneously during DNA replication or induced by environmental factors like radiation. There are different types of mutations including chromosomal, gene, and frameshift mutations. Frameshift mutations occur due to the insertion or deletion of nucleotides, changing the reading frame. Mutations can have beneficial effects by creating genetic variation and driving evolution, but they can also have harmful effects by causing genetic disorders or nonfunctional proteins.

1. MUTATION
BY
>>AZIMA FATIMA

2. what is mutation?
>>Such sudden heritable
change in genetic material is called
mutation.
>>The process is called mutagenesis
and the affected organism is called
mutant.

3. Types of mutation
• chromosomal mutation :- structural change in
chromosome
• Gene mutation :- change in gene
• On the basis of occurrence they are of two
type:-
• Somatic mutation
• Germinal mutation

4. How does mutation
occur?
• According to origin mutation proceed by 2-way~
• Spontaneous mutation - they are the mutation
which develop due to internal cause without any
relation to the external factor of the environment.
• How it occurs
• During replication wrong nucleotide enter in the
chain
• Toumers
• these are mutation which develop in response

5. Induced mutation
• to external environmental factors.
• Eg-biological mutagen
Viruses
*physical mutagen - "uv - rays, ionising radiation,
temperature
*chemical mutagen-" nitrous acid, hydroxylamine etc.

6. Method of gene mutation
• 1.substitution - (replacement) -it involves
one or more nitrogen bases with other.
it is of two types :-
*transition :- A purine is replaced to the
another purine (A and G) while pyrimidine with
pyrimidine (C, T)
* transversion :-there is a replacement of
purine (A, G) with pyrimidine (C, T).

7. Frame - shift mutation
>> it is a gene mutation where the reading
codon is changed due to detection or insertion
of nucleotide.
They are of two types :-
*"insertion :- there is a insertion of one or
more nucleotide inside the gene.
ATT CGC TGA = AGT TCG CTG A
ATT CGC TGA = ACG TTC GCT GA

8. DELETION
>>one or more nucleotide slip out of gene changing the
reading of the frame in backward direction.
ATT CGC TGA = ATC GCT GA
deletion of T.
ATT CGC TGA = AGT TCG CGA
deletion of TT
both insertion ND deletion occur :-
Insertion of G
ATT CGC TGA = AGT TCG CGA
Deletion of T.

9. Importance of Mutation
• Beneficial importance :-
• Without mutation the gene exist in one form
No alles found
* it is ultimate source of all variations.
*Raw material for evolution.
*it is able to evolve ND adapt to environmental
change
Ex:- protection against HIV.

10. HARMUFUL effects
• Mutation can cause error in protein sequence
creating non functional protein. It can cause genetic
disorders
• Ex:- A drosophilla with leg grown over the head
• Six finger develops in a palm