The document discusses the motor system and muscle spindle. It begins by outlining the specific learning objectives which include the organization of the motor system, structure of muscle spindle, and effects of various conditions on muscle spindle discharge. It then provides details on the organization of the motor system, including its 6 levels of control from muscles to the cerebral cortex. It extensively covers the structure and function of the muscle spindle, including its intrafusal and extrafusal fibers, afferent and efferent innervation, and static and dynamic responses to stretch. It concludes by discussing how the stretch reflex and muscle spindle discharge can be modulated.
physiology of muscle contraction and basics of exerciseJoe Antony
ithin the fi eld of physiology, there are a number of fundamental principles. Some of these key principles are
(a) homeostasis, (b) the linkage between gene expression
and physiology, and (c) structure–function relationships.
It is this latter principle that forms the foundation of the
current chapter. The concept of structure–function relationships extends across the organism-to-molecule spectrum. At the organism level, one can think about a number
of examples. For instance, the structural relationship
between the glenoid fossa and the head of the humerus
gives the shoulder six degrees of motion—a motion that
is uncommon among other joints. At the molecular level,
one can think about the structure of myosin heavy chains
(MHCs) and how this translates into certain functional
properties like the force–velocity relationship.
The discipline of exercise physiology really represents
a subdiscipline or an extension of the fi eld of physiology;
and, as such, the fundamental principles are essentially
the same except that they are examined typically under
conditions where physical activity has been altered. In this
context, a great deal of interest has been given to understanding the effects of both activity and inactivity on the
structural and functional properties of skeletal muscle during the past 30 to 35 years.
Of any cell/tissue type, skeletal muscle certainly
exhibits some of the clearest structure–function relationships. Given this perspective, one of the key objectives of
this chapter is to provide a backdrop for some of the more
detailed discussions that follow in successive chapters. The
current chapter is organized into three distinct sections.
The fi rst section provides an overview of some of the key
structural properties of skeletal muscle (macroscopic to
molecular anatomy). The second part of the chapter addresses the linkage between structure and function and the
topic of skeletal muscle plasticity as infl uenced by altered
physical activity. The fi nal section of this chapter examines
issues of muscle plasticity from a comparative perspective
and introduces the concept of symmorphosis, a concept
related to the optimality of design
Learn about how our muscle functioning everyday. And check out the muscle roles!! Simple notes, Simple slides for the beginner person who's attracted to science.
physiology of muscle contraction and basics of exerciseJoe Antony
ithin the fi eld of physiology, there are a number of fundamental principles. Some of these key principles are
(a) homeostasis, (b) the linkage between gene expression
and physiology, and (c) structure–function relationships.
It is this latter principle that forms the foundation of the
current chapter. The concept of structure–function relationships extends across the organism-to-molecule spectrum. At the organism level, one can think about a number
of examples. For instance, the structural relationship
between the glenoid fossa and the head of the humerus
gives the shoulder six degrees of motion—a motion that
is uncommon among other joints. At the molecular level,
one can think about the structure of myosin heavy chains
(MHCs) and how this translates into certain functional
properties like the force–velocity relationship.
The discipline of exercise physiology really represents
a subdiscipline or an extension of the fi eld of physiology;
and, as such, the fundamental principles are essentially
the same except that they are examined typically under
conditions where physical activity has been altered. In this
context, a great deal of interest has been given to understanding the effects of both activity and inactivity on the
structural and functional properties of skeletal muscle during the past 30 to 35 years.
Of any cell/tissue type, skeletal muscle certainly
exhibits some of the clearest structure–function relationships. Given this perspective, one of the key objectives of
this chapter is to provide a backdrop for some of the more
detailed discussions that follow in successive chapters. The
current chapter is organized into three distinct sections.
The fi rst section provides an overview of some of the key
structural properties of skeletal muscle (macroscopic to
molecular anatomy). The second part of the chapter addresses the linkage between structure and function and the
topic of skeletal muscle plasticity as infl uenced by altered
physical activity. The fi nal section of this chapter examines
issues of muscle plasticity from a comparative perspective
and introduces the concept of symmorphosis, a concept
related to the optimality of design
Learn about how our muscle functioning everyday. And check out the muscle roles!! Simple notes, Simple slides for the beginner person who's attracted to science.
Spasticity is a common motor control disorder frequently encountered in the
spectrum of the upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome. It can result in pain,
fatigue, joint restrictions, functional impairments, and skin breakdown that may
negatively affect many domains of life by causing social avoidance and
diminished life satisfaction . Spasticity was originally defined as a velocity dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes or muscle tone with exaggerated
tendon jerks resulting from increased excitability of the stretch reflex . This
definition has been criticized for being too narrow and inadequately depicting
the clinical sequelae. In 2005, a European Thematic Network to Develop
Standardized Measures of Spasticity (the SPASM consortium) suggested
broadening the definition to reflect a more clinical entity . They defined
spasticity as “disordered sensory-motor control, resulting from an upper motor
neuron lesion, presenting as intermittent or sustained involuntary activation of
muscles.
Principles and Methods of Heart Rate Variability BiofeedbackSaran A K
Biofeedback is a type of therapy that teaches a person to change and control physiological processes through practice.
Heart Rate Variability is a specific type of biofeedback that noninvasively measures harmony of autonomic nervous system.
Stress, anxiety, and maladaptive thought patterns result in incoherence.
With practice and guided exercises, individuals can utilize techniques to improve self-regulation and psychosocial functioning.
Empowers patient to be their own agent for change.
Vagus nerve stimulation involves using a device to stimulate the vagus nerve with electrical impulses. There's one vagus nerve on each side of your body. The vagus nerve runs from the lower part of the brain through the neck to the chest and stomach. When the vagus nerve is stimulated, electrical impulses travel to areas of the brain. This alters brain activity to treat certain conditions.
Vagus nerve stimulation can be done in many ways with many devices. An implantable vagus nerve stimulator has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat epilepsy and depression. The device works by sending stimulation to areas of the brain that lead to seizures and affect mood.
Spasticity is a common motor control disorder frequently encountered in the
spectrum of the upper motor neuron (UMN) syndrome. It can result in pain,
fatigue, joint restrictions, functional impairments, and skin breakdown that may
negatively affect many domains of life by causing social avoidance and
diminished life satisfaction . Spasticity was originally defined as a velocity dependent increase in tonic stretch reflexes or muscle tone with exaggerated
tendon jerks resulting from increased excitability of the stretch reflex . This
definition has been criticized for being too narrow and inadequately depicting
the clinical sequelae. In 2005, a European Thematic Network to Develop
Standardized Measures of Spasticity (the SPASM consortium) suggested
broadening the definition to reflect a more clinical entity . They defined
spasticity as “disordered sensory-motor control, resulting from an upper motor
neuron lesion, presenting as intermittent or sustained involuntary activation of
muscles.
Principles and Methods of Heart Rate Variability BiofeedbackSaran A K
Biofeedback is a type of therapy that teaches a person to change and control physiological processes through practice.
Heart Rate Variability is a specific type of biofeedback that noninvasively measures harmony of autonomic nervous system.
Stress, anxiety, and maladaptive thought patterns result in incoherence.
With practice and guided exercises, individuals can utilize techniques to improve self-regulation and psychosocial functioning.
Empowers patient to be their own agent for change.
Vagus nerve stimulation involves using a device to stimulate the vagus nerve with electrical impulses. There's one vagus nerve on each side of your body. The vagus nerve runs from the lower part of the brain through the neck to the chest and stomach. When the vagus nerve is stimulated, electrical impulses travel to areas of the brain. This alters brain activity to treat certain conditions.
Vagus nerve stimulation can be done in many ways with many devices. An implantable vagus nerve stimulator has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat epilepsy and depression. The device works by sending stimulation to areas of the brain that lead to seizures and affect mood.
Brief Overview of Autonomic Function TestsSaran A K
For most of us, stress maybe be a exam, a presentation or some personal goal you are working on. Stress is a word with broad meaning and is part and parcel of our day to day life. Now lets think or a patient with say, orthostatic hypotension, the mere act of standing up from a chair is a stress that he gives to the body. So regardless of whatever the stressor is, there is a system in our body which works tirelessly day after night in the background, that carefully orchestrates the body machinery to meet the challenges we throw at it. That strives for the golden state, that we physiologists love , homeostasis or the maintenance of milieu interior. That system to which we should be thankful to is the autonomic system.
Now in this presentation, we will talk about it but mainly about a brief overview of the autonomic function tests that are used for its assessment.
DM Seminar on Polysomnography. Sleep in itself is a myriad of wonders. In this presentation, we take a look at the neurobiology of sleep and how it is regulated in the human body. We also take a sneak peak into polysomnography as a window for monitoring sleep.
Sleep in itself is a myriad of wonders. In this presentation, we take a look at the neurobiology of sleep and how it is regulated in the human body. We also take a sneak peak into polysomnography as a window for monitoring sleep.
COVID 19 pandemic have had devastating impact on all aspects of life especially on the health systems. Back in March 2020, there was a war time emergency to scale up heath facilities in view of saving life without taxing the system. In response to the heavy patient load experienced at GMC, Calicut, NIT-K Mega Boys Hostel located 20 kms away from GMC Calicut was converted into a 500 bedded first line treatment centre within a short deadline of one week.
An oral paper presentation on the topic "Cardiorespiratory fitness: A cross-sectional study by comparison of the athletic and non-athletic medical UG students using VO2 max" based on the post graduate dissertation done in 2019-2021
Shear stress Effects on Left Coronary Artery Saran A K
Throughout the last decade, many studies have found the effect of shear stress on coronary vasculature. Ischaemic Heart Disease is a leading cause of death worldwide, killing an Indian every minute. The most common cause of myocardial ischemia is Atherosclerosis and on the basis of several data, atherosclerosis appears to be more prevalent in the left coronary arterial system compared to the right. The reason for this has remained an enigma for a long while but can be explained by using shear stress. Now, we will see how the shear stress breaks the coronary circuit
The blood circulates in a closed system of branching conduits. Haemodynamics refers to the studies of blood flow and related forces in moving the blood through the circulatory system. It
discusses the physical principles of blood flow t through the blood vessels with reference to the interrelationships among pressure, flow, and resistance.
Assessment of Cardiovascular Fitness (VO2 Max) among medical students by Queens College Step test
Khushoo, T. N., Rafiq, N., & Qayoom, O. (2015). Assessment of cardiovascular fitness [VO2 max] among medical students by Queens College step test. International Journal of Biomedical and Advance Research, 6(5), 418–421. https://doi.org/10.7439/ijbar.v6i5.1965
Histology of Renal Tubule and its Variation in relation to FunctionSaran A K
The structural and functional unit of kidney, the nephron is highly specialized in view of its function. Here we look at the various histological variations/modification in relation to its function of the Renal Tubule
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
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- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
2. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 3
Specific Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• Organization of Motor System
• Muscle and its connections
• Structure of Muscle Spindle
• Effect of various conditions on mucle spindle discharge
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
3. Movements are the major way in which humans
interact with the world.
ˈ
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 4
4. • Contraction of skeletal muscle fibers are responsible
for the movement of the body.
• Motor function of nervous system is the control of
skeletal muscle activity.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 5
5. Motor System plays a role in inducing voluntary activity, to
adjust body posture, and to make movements smooth
and precise.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 6
6. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 7
Specific Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• Organization of Motor System
• Muscle and its connections
• Structure of Muscle Spindle
• Effect of various conditions on mucle spindle discharge
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
7. Organization of Motor System
1. Muscle and its connections
2. Segmental circuit in spinal cord
3. Brainstem controlling centres
4. Basal ganglia, cerebellum
5. Thalamus
6. Cerebral cortex
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 8
9. Stretch Reflex
• When a skeletal muscle with an intact nerve supply is
stretched, it contracts.
• This response is called the stretch reflex.
• Sense organ – muscle spindle
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 10
11. 1. Stimulus - stretch of the muscle
2. Sense organ / receptor - muscle spindle (intrafusal)
3. Afferent nerve – group Ia fibre
4. Centre – spinal cord (alpha motor neuron)
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 12
12. 5. Efferent nerve – axons of alpha motor neuron
6. Effector organ – extrafusal muscle fibres
7. Effect- contraction of same muscle
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 13
13. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 14
Specific Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• Organization of Motor System
• Muscle and its connections
• Structure of Muscle Spindle
• Effect of various conditions on mucle spindle discharge
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
14. 1. Muscle and its connections
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 15
15. Muscle has two types of fibers
a. Extrafusal fibers
• Regular striated contractile units of muscle
• Motor Function
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 16
17. b. Intrafusal fibers / Muscle spindle
• Spindle shaped.
• Less distinct striations.
• Do not contribute to overall contractile force, serves
a pure sensory function.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 18
18. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 19
Specific Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• Organization of Motor System
• Muscle and its connections
• Structure of Muscle Spindle
• Effect of various conditions on mucle spindle discharge
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
20. 1. Each spindle consists up to 10 intrafusal muscle
fibres (3-12 fibres).
2. Enclosed in a connective tissue capsule, attached
to glycocalyx of surrounding large extrafusal skeletal
muscle fibres.
Muscle Spindle
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 21
22. 3. Has contractile polar ends and non-contractile centre
(receptor portion).
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 23
23. 4. Fibers lie parallel to extrafusal fibers.
Hence, transmits information about muscle length or
rate of change of length.
5. Since changes in muscle length are associated with
changes in joint angle, muscle spindle provides
information about position (proprioception).
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 24
24. 6. Each muscle spindle has 3 elements
a. Intrafusal Fibers
b. Afferent Neurons
c. Efferent Neurons
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 25
25. a. Intrafusal Fibers
2 types of intrafusal fibers
i. Nuclear bag fibers
• Contains many nuclei in a dilated central area
• 1-3 in each spindle
• 2 subtypes: Dynamic and Static nuclear bag fibers
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 26
28. ii. Nuclear chain fibers
• Nuclei aligned in a chain throughout the receptor area
• Lacks a definite bag
• Thinner and shorter fibers
• 3-9 in each spindle
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 29
31. b. Afferent Neurons
• Group Ia and II fibers
• Two types of endings
• Primary/ Annulospiral endings
• Secondary/ Flower Spray endings
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 32
32. i. Primary (annulospiral) endings
1. Terminations of rapidly conducting group Ia
afferent fibers
2. Wraps around center of both dynamic and static
nuclear bag fibers as well as nuclear chain fibers
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 33
36. ii. Secondary (flower-spray) endings
1. Termination of group II afferent fibers
2. Innervates static nuclear bag fibers as well as nuclear
chain fibers
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 37
40. Response to stretch – 2 types
1. Static response
• Impulses transmitted from both 1º and 2º endings
• Increases directly in proportion to degree of stretching
• Discharge occurs throughout the period of stretching
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 41
41. • Respond to length of receptor.
• Responsible for muscle tone.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 42
42. 2. Dynamic response
• Impulses transmitted from 1º endings in nuclear bag
region.
• Discharge rapidly when muscle is stretched.
• Respond to rate of change of receptor length during
stretch.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 43
43. • Provide information about the speed of movement.
• Allow for quick corrective movements that oppose
sudden changes in muscle length.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 44
44. c. Efferent Neurons
• γ motor neurons
• Supply the contractile ends of muscle spindle
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 45
45. Histologically,
• Plate endings → motor end plates in nuclear bag fibers
• Trail endings → motor end plates in nuclear chain fibers
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 46
47. 2 types of γ efferents:
i. Dynamic γ efferents (gamma-d)
• Stimulates dynamic nuclear bag fibers
• Increases sensitivity of Ia afferents → dynamic response
of Ia fiber is markedly enhanced
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 48
48. ii. Static γ efferents (gamma-s)
• Stimulates static nuclear bag fibers and nuclear
chain fibers
• Increases tonic activity in Ia and II fibers
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 49
52. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 53
Specific Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• Organization of Motor System
• Muscle and its connections
• Structure of Muscle Spindle
• Effect of various conditions on mucle spindle discharge
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
53. 1. Stretch of muscle
Stretch of muscle → stretch of muscle spindle →
sensory endings get distorted →increased sensory
output of muscle spindle (Loading of the muscle
spindle) → POSITIVE signal
58. 3. Stimulation of γ Motor Neuron
Stimulation of γMN → contractile ends of muscle
spindle shorten → stretches nuclear bag region →
increased impulses in sensory fibers → increases
sensitivity of muscle spindle to stretch.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 59
60. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 61
What are the different ways through which
a muscle can be contracted?
Q
61. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 62
1.Stretch of the muscle – Stretch Reflex
2.Descending Motor Pathways - Corticospinal Tract
3.Gamma Efferent to Muscle Spindle
63. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 64
Specific Learning Objectives
• Introduction
• Organization of Motor System
• Muscle and its connections
• Structure of Muscle Spindle
• Effect of various conditions on mucle spindle discharge
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
66. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 3
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
67. α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
Increased γ efferent discharge along with increased
discharge of α motor neuron.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 4
68. • Descending pathways send signals to both αMN as
well as to γ MN.
• αMN and γ MN are stimulated simultaneously.
• Because of this linkage, intrafusal and extrafusal
fibres contract together (spindle shortens with the
muscle)
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 5
70. Two effects
• Keeps the length of the receptor portion of muscle
spindle from changing during course of whole muscle
contraction.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 7
1
71. 2
• Spindle remain capable of responding to stretch and
reflexly adjust motor neuron discharge.
• So, helps to maintain proper damping function of the
muscle spindle, regardless of any change in muscle length.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 8
72. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 9
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
73. Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
1. Facilitates stretch reflex by increasing γ efferent
discharge
i. Facilitatory reticular formation in the brain stem
ii. Vestibular nucleus
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 10
74. 2. Inhibit stretch reflex by decreasing γ efferent discharge
i. Cerebral cortex
ii. Cerebellum, basal ganglia
iii. Inhibitory reticular formation
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 11
77. 3. Stimulation of skin by noxious agents
• Increased γMN activity to ipsilateral flexor muscle spindles
while decreasing that to extensors
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 14
78. 4. Jendrassik’s Maneuver
Done by asking the subject to
make a strong voluntary muscle
contraction and simultaneously
eliciting the deep tendon reflex.
79. • Eg. Pull hands apart when the flexed fingers are hooked
together.
• Reinforcement of tendon jerks maybe due to increased
γ MN discharge initiated by afferent impulses from
hands
• Thus increases the sensitivity of muscle spindle to
stretch.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 16
80. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 17
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
81. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 18
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
82. Functions of Muscle Spindle
1. Acts as a feedback mechanism to maintain muscle length
2. Damping function of dynamic and static stretch reflex
3. Maintenance of muscle tone
4. Maintenance of posture
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 19
83. 1. Feedback mechanism to maintain muscle length
• Stimulated by stretching of muscles
• Provides a feedback mechanism
• Operates to maintain muscle length
84. When muscle is stretched
↓
Increased spindle discharge
↓
Afferents pass through type Ia fibers
↓
Enter spinal cord through dorsal root
↓
Synapses with anterior motor neurons
supplying same muscle
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 21
85. ↓
Reflex shortening of muscle by contraction
of extrafusal fibers
↓
Decreased stimulation of spindle
Muscle relaxation
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 22
86. Two type of responses
1. Dynamic response / phasic response
2. Static response / tonic response
87. 2. Damping function of dynamic and static stretch
reflexes
• Signals from spinal cord are often transmitted to a muscle
in an unsmooth form.
• If the muscle spindle is not functioning properly muscle
contractions will be jerky.
88. Curve A → normal muscle
Curve B → muscle whose muscle spindles were denervated by section of the posterior roots of the cord 82 days previously
90. • Marked dynamic response helps to dampen oscillations
caused by conduction delays in feedback loop regulating
muscle length.
• Normally a small oscillation occur in this feedback loop -
Physiological tremor.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 27
91. Physiological Tremor
• Normal phenomenon
• Low amplitude, Frequency-10 Hz
• Barely visible to the naked eye
• Become exaggerated when we are anxious or tired or
because of drug toxicity
92. 3. Maintenance of muscle tone
• Tone is the resistance offered by a muscle to passive
stretch.
• It is a state of partial contraction found in muscles at
rest.
93. • Static response of muscle spindles are responsible for
tone.
• Helps to maintain posture.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 30
94. Normal tone is ill defined area somewhere between
flaccidity and spasticity.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 31
95. Low frequency asynchronous discharge of gamma motor
neuron causes slight contraction of muscle under resting
state.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 32
96. Hypotonic occurs when rate of γ motor neuron discharge
is low and hypertonic when it is high.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 33
97. 4. Maintenance of posture
Muscle spindle stabilizes body position during tense
motor action.
98. • Spindles of muscles on both sides of each joint are
activated at the same time → reflex contraction of the
muscles occur.
• This stabilizes the major joints.
• Aids tremendously in performing the additional fine
voluntary movements of fingers or other body parts.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 35
99. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 36
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
100. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 37
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
102. A. Anterior Motor Neurons
Alpha motor neuron
Gamma motor neuron
B. Interneurons
C. Renshaw Cells
103. A. Anterior Motor Neurons
• Located in each segment of the anterior horns of spinal
cord gray matter.
• Give rise to nerve fibers that leave the cord by way of
anterior roots and directly innervate the skeletal muscle
fibers.
104. 2 types
• Alpha motor neurons and
• Gamma motor neurons
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 41
108. Alpha motor neurons
Axons : Aα fibres
14-15 µm in diameter
Innervate the large skeletal
muscle fibers
Gamma motor neuron
Axons : Aγ fibres
5 µm in diameter
Supply intrafusal muscle fibres
Alpha v/s Gamma
109. Functions of inputs converging on Alpha motor
neuron
1. Bring about voluntary activity
2. Adjust body posture to provide stable background for
movement
3. Coordinate various movements to make movements
smooth and precise
110. Levels of inputs to the Alpha motor neuron
• From same spinal segment
• From supra segmental levels in the spinal cord
• From brain stem
• From cerebral cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum
111. B. Interneurons
• Present in all areas of the cord gray matter—in the dorsal
horns, the anterior horns, and the intermediate areas
• 30 times as numerous as the anterior motor neurons
112.
113. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 51
Interconnections among interneurons and anterior motor
neurons are responsible for most of the integrative
functions of spinal cord.
114. C. Renshaw cells
• Inhibitory cells
• Transmit inhibitory signals to surrounding motor neurons
• Stimulation of each motor neuron tends to inhibit adjacent
→ lateral inhibition
• Focus or sharpen signals
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 52
115. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 53
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
116. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 54
Specific Learning Objectives
• α- γ linkage (α- γ coactivation)
• Higher Control of Stretch Reflex
• Functions of Muscle Spindle
• Segmental Circuit in Spinal Cord
• Other areas in motor system hierarchy
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
117. 3. Motor Cortex
• Corticospinal tract / pyramidal tract
• Corticobulbar projections →
projections arise
• From sensory cortex to motor cortex - Sensory motor
coordination
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 55
118. 4. Brainstem controlling centers
• →
motor nuclei to αMN
• Reticulospinal tract
• Vestibulospinal tract
• Mainly concerned with postural movements
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 56
119. 5. Basal ganglia
• Subcortical structure
• No direct sensory input from spinal cord
• Project to motor cortex via thalamus
• Involved in initiation, smoothening and coordination of
movements.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 57
120. 6. Cerebellum
• Receives inputs from all sensory modalities
• Project to brainstem motor nuclei and motor cortex
• Control almost all aspects of movement - planning,
programming, initiation, termination and coordination
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 58
121. 7. Thalamus
• Major sensory relay station
• Receives inputs from cerebellum and basal ganglia
• Plays an important role in sensory motor coordination.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 59
129. • Commands for voluntary movements originate in
cortical association areas.
• Planning and organization of movements → by cortex,
basal ganglia and lateral portion of cerebellum
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 8
130. • Plan is projected to the motor and premotor cortex.
• Commands are sent to muscle → via corticospinal and
corticobulbar tracts.
• Feedback information that adjusts and smoothens
movement relayed to motor cortex and spinocerebellum.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 9
131. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 10
Specific Learning Objectives
• Voluntary Movements
• Cortical Motor Areas
• Descending Tracts
• Pyramidal Tract
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
132. Cortical Motor Areas
• Control voluntary movement
• Comprises of
1. Primary Motor Cortex
2. Premotor Area
3. Supplementary Motor Area
4. Posterior Parietal Cortex
5. Primary Somatosensory Area
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 11
133. Primary Motor Cortex
• M1, Brodmann area 4
• Located in precentral gyrus of frontal lobe.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 12
136. 1. Primary Motor Cortex
• M1, Brodmann area 4
• Located in precentral gyrus of frontal lobe.
• Begins laterally in the sylvian fissure, spreads superiorly
to the uppermost portion of the brain.
• Then dips deep into the longitudinal fissure.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 15
137. • Concerned with execution of movements.
• Generates signals that control the execution of
discrete, individual movements rather than one
specific muscle
• Topographical Representation – Motor Homunculus
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 16
138. Motor Homunculus
• Figurative representation of body map encoded in
primary motor cortex.
• Mapped by Penfield and Rasmussen.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 17
142. • Each side of the body is represented on the opposite
side in the brain.
• Inverted map → feet at the top and face at the bottom
• Facial area is represented bilaterally.
• Area involved in speech and hand movements → large
representation in the cortex.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 21
143. • Axial musculature and proximal portions of limb
represented along the anterior edge of precentral gyrus.
• Distal part of limb along the posterior edge.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 22
144.
145. Cortical representation of each body part is proportional
in size to the skill with which the part is used in fine
voluntary movement.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 24
146. • Motor system "learns by doing" and performance
improves with repetition → cortical plasticity.
• Maps of motor cortex are therefore not immutable.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 25
147. 2. Premotor Area
• Brodmann’s area 6
• Lies immediately anterior to primary motor cortex –
extending inferiorly to Sylvian fissure and superiorly to
longitudinal fissure
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 26
148. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 27
Contains a somatotopic map that is roughly same as that
of primary motor cortex
149. • Complex “patterns” of movement.
• Concerned with setting posture at the start of a planned
movement and getting the individual to move.
• Most involved in control of proximal limb muscles
needed to orient the body for movement.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 28
150. Premotor area sends signals
1. Either directly to primary motor cortex to excite
specific muscles
2. Or by way of basal ganglia and thalamus back to
primary motor cortex
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 29
152. • Special class of neurons - mirror neurons present.
• Transform sensory representations of acts that are heard
or seen into motor representations of these acts.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 31
153. • Special class of neurons - mirror neurons present.
• Transform sensory representations of acts that are heard
or seen into motor representations of these acts.
• Important for understanding the actions of other people
and for learning new skills by imitation.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 32
154. Special areas in Premotor cortex
1. Broca’s area (Motor Speech Area) – related to speech
2. Voluntary eye movement field
1. For moving eyes toward different objects
2. Also controls eyelid movements such as blinking
155. 3. Head rotation area
• Directs the head toward different objects
• Closely associated with the eye movement field
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 34
156. 4. Area for hand skills
• Lies immediately anterior to the primary motor
cortex for the hands and fingers
• Lesions cause hand movements become un-
coordinated and non-purposeful - Motor apraxia
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 35
157. 3. Supplementary motor area
• Situated on and above the superior bank of cingulate
sulcus.
• This area project to motor cortex.
158. • Involved in programming motor sequences – when
movements performed are complex and need planning.
• Lesions produce inability to perform complex action
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 37
159. 4. Posterior Parietal cortex
• Two areas: area 5 and area 7
• Provide fibers to corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts
• Project to premotor cortex
160. • Neurons in area 5 are concerned with aiming the
hands towards an object and manipulating it.
• Neurons in area 7 are concerned with hand eye
coordination.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 39
161. 5. Primary somatosensory cortex
• Area 3, 1, 2
• Projects to premotor cortex.
• Lesion of somatosensory area affects learned sequence
of movements eg. Eating with knife and fork.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 40
162. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 41
Specific Learning Objectives
• Voluntary Movements
• Cortical Motor Areas
• Descending Tracts
• Pyramidal Tract
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
163. Descending tracts or Motor pathways
1. Pyramidal tract or Corticospinal tract and
Corticobulbar or Corticonuclear tract
2. Extra pyramidal pathways
• Reticulospinal, Vestibulospinal, Rubrospinal,
Tectospinal
164. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 43
Specific Learning Objectives
• Voluntary Movements
• Cortical Motor Areas
• Descending Tracts
• Pyramidal Tract
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
165. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 44
Specific Learning Objectives
• Voluntary Movements
• Cortical Motor Areas
• Descending Tracts
• Pyramidal Tract
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
166. Corticospinal tract or Pyramidal pathway
• Primary pathway for initiation of skilled voluntary
movements.
• Longest tract
• Becomes myelinated in the first 2 years of life.
167. • Corticospinal tract + corticobulbar tract
• 1 million fibers in each corticospinal tract
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 46
168. A. Origin
1. 30% from Primary motor cortex
2. 30% from Premotor cortex and Supplementary motor area
3. 40% from Somatosensory area posterior to central sulcus
170. Cells of origin
• Giant pyramidal cells of Betz → 3%
• Small pyramidal cells → 97%
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 49
171. Betz cells
• Betz in 1874 described the giant pyramidal cells in 5th
layer of primary motor cortex.
• Only 3% of CST fibers arise from Betz cells - large cell,
velocity-70m/sec.
172.
173. B. Course
Cerebral cortex-various areas
↓
Corona radiata
↓
Internal capsule – genu and anterior 2/3rd of
posterior limb (head region anteriorly, feet posteriorly)
180. ↓
Pons (broken up to discrete bundles by pontine nuclei)
At the lower border collected into a compact bundle
↓
Medulla – seen as Pyramid
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 59
181.
182. At the lower border of medulla,
• 80% cross to opposite side – crossed Pyramidal tract or
Lateral Corticospinal tract
• 20% uncrossed fibers – Anterior or Ventral Cortico-
spinal tract
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 61
188. Lateral Corticospinal Tract
• 80% of pyramidal fibers cross to opposite side
• Descend down in lateral funiculus of spinal cord
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 67
189. C. Termination of Lateral CST
• Terminates at all spinal cord levels directly on αMNs.
• Lateral CST – make monosynaptic direct
connections to motor neurons on opposite side
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 68
190. • Controls distal limb muscles → concerned with fine
skilled movements
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 69
191. Anterior Corticospinal Tract
• About 20% fibers do not cross in medulla
• Descend down in anterior funiculus of spinal cord
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 70
192. C. Termination of Anterior CST
• Most of fibers cross at the level of spinal cord where
they terminate, but some fibers remain uncrossed.
• Anterior CST – connect with interneuron that make
connection with α motor neuron on both sides of body
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 71
193. • Controls muscles of trunk and proximal muscles of
limbs → concerned with postural adjustments and
gross movements.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 72
194.
195. Within the brainstem and spinal cord,
• Pathways and neurons concerned with control of axial
muscles & proximal limb muscles are located medially
or ventrally.
196. Within the brainstem and spinal cord,
• Pathways & neurons that are concerned with control of
muscles in distal portions of the limbs are located
laterally.
198. C. Termination of CST
• Synapse with α motor neuron in anterior horn directly or
indirectly through interneuron .
• Few terminate on sensory relay neurons in dorsal horn
199. • Lateral CST – make monosynaptic direct connections
to motor neurons on opposite side (esp. for skilled
movements)
• Anterior CST – connect with interneuron that make
connection with α motor neuron on both sides of body
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 78
204. Descending tracts or Motor pathways
1. Pyramidal tract or Corticospinal tract and
Corticobulbar or Corticonuclear tract
2. Extra pyramidal pathways
• Reticulospinal, Vestibulospinal, Rubrospinal,
Tectospinal
205. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 4
Specific Learning Objectives
• Corticobulbar / Corticonuclear Tracts
• Concept of LMN and UMN
• Functions of Pyramidal Tract
• Extrapyramidal System
• Functions of Extrapyramidal System
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
206. Corticobulbar or Corticonuclear tracts
Through out the brain stem, fibers are given off from
pyramidal tract to the nuclei of motor cranial nerves.
207. Corticobulbar neurons end either directly on the cranial
nerve nuclei or on their antecedent interneurons within
the brainstem.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 6
208. • Midbrain - 3rd and 4th cranial nerve nuclei
• Pons - 5th, 6th and 7th cranial nerve nuclei
• Medulla - 9th,10th,11th and 12th cranial nerve
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 7
211. 1. In midbrain, corticobulbar fibers terminate in motor
nuclei of CN III and IV bilaterally.
2. In pons, corticobulbar fibers to motor nuclei to CN V
and VI bilaterally
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 10
212. • Corticobulbar fibers to CN VII → to upper and lower part of
contralateral motor nucleus and only upper part of
ipsilateral motor nucleus.
3. In medulla, corticobulbar fibers to motor nuclei of CN IX,
X, XI bilaterally and unilaterally to contralateral motor
nucleus CN XII.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 11
213. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 12
Specific Learning Objectives
• Corticobulbar / Corticonuclear Tracts
• Concept of LMN and UMN
• Functions of Pyramidal Tract
• Extrapyramidal System
• Functions of Extrapyramidal System
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
216. Lower motor neuron (LMN)
• Spinal and cranial motor neurons that directly innervate
muscles.
• Alpha motor neuron and the motor part of cranial
nerves.
217. Upper motor neuron (UMN)
• Neurons in brain and spinal cord that activate or inhibit
the alpha motor neuron or corresponding cranial nerve
nuclei through the descending tracts.
• Pyramidal tract and extra pyramidal tracts
218. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 17
Specific Learning Objectives
• Corticobulbar / Corticonuclear Tracts
• Concept of LMN and UMN
• Functions of Pyramidal Tract
• Extrapyramidal System
• Functions of Extrapyramidal System
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
219. Functions of pyramidal tract
1. Voluntary motor function
A. Lateral corticospinal tract
• Main control of movements of distal limb muscles
• Initiation of skilled voluntary movements
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 18
220. B. Anterior corticospinal tract
• Movement of trunk and proximal limb muscles
• Postural adjustments and gross movements
C. Corticobulbar fibers
• Supply muscles at face, eyes, tongue, larynx and
pharynx.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 19
221. 2. Forms pathway for superficial reflexes (abdominal
reflex, plantar reflex)
3. Some fibers transmit information from brain to
afferent neuron, so can modify afferent inputs –
sensory motor co-ordination.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 20
222. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 21
Specific Learning Objectives
• Corticobulbar / Corticonuclear Tracts
• Concept of LMN and UMN
• Functions of Pyramidal Tract
• Extrapyramidal System
• Functions of Extrapyramidal System
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
223. The Extrapyramidal System
Parts of nervous system excluding motor cortex and
corticospinal pathway which are concerned with
movement and posture.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 22
225. Extrapyramidal tracts
All descending motor pathways other than pyramidal
tract, concerned with control of muscle tone, posture
and equilibrium.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 24
226. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 27
EXTRAPYRAMIDAL TRACTS
LATERAL BRAINSTEM PATHWAYS
MEDIAL BRAINSTEM PATHWAYS
• Descend in ipsilateral
anterior funiculus.
• Synapse at medial part of
anterior horn.
• Control axial and
proximal muscles.
• Descend in lateral
funiculus.
• Synapse at lateral part of
anterior horn.
• Control distal limb
muscles.
231. 1. Rubrospinal tract
• Arise from magnocellular portion of red nucleus in
midbrain.
• Fibers cross to the opposite side as Forel’s decussation.
• → Reticular formation of Pons → Medulla → Spinal cord →
Anterior horn cell
232. • Involved in regulation of posture and coordination
• Concerned with adjustments of distal limb muscles -
Influence αMN that controls distal limb muscles on
contralateral side of body
• Excites flexor muscles and inhibits extensor muscles
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 33
233. 2. Tectospinal Pathway
• Fibers arise from tectum (superior colliculus) of mid brain
• Cross to opposite side → Reticular formation of Pons →
Medulla → Spinal cord → Anterior horn cell
• Receives mainly visual input.
• Control movements of head and eyes- regulates head
movements in response to visual stimuli.
234. 3. Vestibulospinal tract
• Originates from vestibular nucleus
• Stimulates αMN
• Function in association with pontine reticular nuclei to control
antigravity muscles.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 35
235. Lateral Vestibulospinal
• Arises in the lower pons in the lateral vestibular nucleus
• Descend in the spinal cord in the anterior funiculus
anterior to rubrospinal tract
• Fibers are uncrossed
236. • Projects ipsilaterally to neurons that activate antigravity
muscles at all spinal levels.
• Mediates body postural adjustments after angular and
linear accelerations of head.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 37
237. Medial Vestibulospinal
• Arises from lower pons in medial and inferior vestibular
nuclei
• Descend in the anterior funiculus – crossed & uncrossed
238. • Projects bilaterally to cervical spinal motor neurons
that control neck musculature.
• Mediates adjustments in head position in response to
angular acceleration.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 39
239. 4. Reticulospinal – Medial & Lateral
• Arise from reticular formation of pons and medulla
• Project to all spinal levels
• Terminate both on alpha motor neuron and gamma
motor neuron
• Involved in maintenance of posture and modulation
of muscle tone.
240. Pontine (medial) reticulospinal tract
• Uncrossed tract
• Pontine reticular formation is spontaneously active.
• In addition, they receive strong excitatory signals from the
vestibular nuclei, as well as from deep nuclei of cerebellum.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 41
241. • Fibers of pontine reticulospinal tract terminate on
medial anterior motor neurons that excite axial
antigravity muscles.
• Stimulate extensor γMN.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 42
242. Medullary (lateral) reticulospinal tract
• Crossed tract
• Medullary reticular nuclei receive strong input collaterals
from corticospinal tract + rubrospinal tract + other motor
pathways.
• Counterbalances the excitatory signals from the pontine
reticular system.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 43
243. • Terminate on anterior motor neurons that control
antigravity muscles.
• Inhibit extensor γMN.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 44
244. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 45
Specific Learning Objectives
• Corticobulbar / Corticonuclear Tracts
• Concept of LMN and UMN
• Functions of Pyramidal Tract
• Extrapyramidal System
• Functions of Extrapyramidal System
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
245. Functions of Extrapyramidal system
1. Facilitate or inhibit voluntary movements
2. Control of posture and equilibrium
3. Control coordinated movements of body and limbs –
coordinated movements of arms and legs during sitting,
walking, running etc.
246. 4. Influence γ motor neuron discharge : control of muscle tone
1. They exert tonic inhibitory control over lower centers
2. Lesion cause increased tone → Rigidity of muscles
5. Cause alterations in respiration, blood pressure
248. Tracts concerned with adjustments of trunk and proximal
muscles (postural adjustments and gross movements)
1. Ventral corticospinal tract
2. Other medial descending tracts from brainstem-
tectospinal, reticulospinal, vestibulospinal
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 49
252. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 3
Specific Learning Objectives
• Lesions of Corticospinal Tract
• Lesions of the extrapyramidal tract
• Reveiw Questions
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
253. Lesions of Corticospinal Pathway
• Loss of ability to initiate voluntary movements
• When lateral CST is specifically damaged → loss of
ability to carry out fine movements.
• When ventral CST is damaged → inability to produce
gross movements like walking, climbing etc.
254. Most lesions of corticospinal system damage the extra
pyramidal system also.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 5
257. • Lesion above decussation → loss of voluntary movement
on opposite side of body.
• At Cerebral Cortex → Monoplegia (localized paralysis
affecting one limb).
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 8
258. • At Internal Capsule → Hemiplegia (paralysis of one half
of body) - because the fibers are closely packed
• At Brainstem → Crossed Hemiplegia one or more
cranial nerves may be affected on the side of lesion &
signs of UMN lesion on opposite side.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 9
260. • At Spinal Cord → Corticospinal tract may be affected
bilaterally.
• The level of lesion is usually delineated by accompanying
LMN lesion signs.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 11
261. Depending on the level of spinal cord lesion
• Paraplegia – both lower limbs are paralyzed.
• Quadriplegia – All four limbs are paralyzed.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 12
263. Hemiplegia
1. Paralysis of one half of body
2. Lesion of Pyramidal tract
3. Site of lesion – Internal capsule
4. Usually caused by thrombosis or hemorrhage in
lenticulo striate branch of middle cerebral
artery.
267. 5. UMN type of lesion
6. In acute state usually there are signs of shock -
Hypotonia, no reflex movements
7. After 2-3 weeks signs of typical UMN lesion
appear.
268. Clinical Features
1. Power
• Unilateral paralysis – one half of the body – Hemiplegia
• Sometime only weakness is seen – Hemiparesis
• Lower part of face is involved
• Mouth deviates to opposite side of lesion
• Upper part of face escapes – bilateral representation
271. 2. Tone
• In pure pyramidal tract lesion hypotonia is seen.
• Usually Pyramidal and Extrapyramidal tracts are damaged
resulting in spasticity – Spastic Paralysis
• Spasticity → Clasp knife effect
• Due to operation of stretch reflex and then inverse stretch
reflex.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 22
272.
273. 3. Deep tendon reflexes:
• Exaggerated (Hyperreflexia)
• Clonus may be present
4. Superficial reflexes:
• Usually absent
• Plantar reflex – Positive Babinski sign
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 24
274. Positive Babinski sign
• Extensor plantar response
• It is a flexor withdrawal reflex that is normally held in
check by the lateral corticospinal system.
275. • Damage to the lateral corticospinal tract produces the
Positive Babinski sign in response to this stimulation.
• Dorsiflexion of the great toe and fanning of the other
toes.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 26
277. 5. Bulk:
• Gross muscle wasting is absent
• Only slight disuse atrophy
6. Speech:
• Dysarthria – due to weakness or incoordination of the
muscle of face, pharynx, lips, tongue or palate.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 28
280. Crossed Hemiplegia
Crossed hemiplegia – here paralysis of muscles
supplied by the cranial nerves on same side and
hemiplegia on opposite side.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 31
281. • Midbrain – 3rd & 4th cranial nerves are damaged (LMN
lesion) → paralysis of ocular muscles on same side.
• Pons – cranial nerves 5,6 & 7 are affected. (LMN lesion)
• Medulla – 9,10,11 &12 cranial nerves are affected → vital
centers may get affected → death
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 32
283. Spinal cord lesion
• Pyramidal tract on both sides are damaged
• Usually paralysis of both lower limbs - Paraplegia
• If at the level of cervical spine – Quadriplegia/ Tetraplegia
284.
285. Cerebral Palsy
• Nonprogressive neurologic disorder.
• Occur before or during childbirth or during early childhood.
• Exposure of developing brain to hypoxia, infections, or
toxins.
• More common in premature babies.
286. 1. Motor deficits
• Spasticity, ataxia
• Deficits in fine motor control
• Abnormal gait (crouched or “scissored gait”)
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 37
287. 2. Sensory deficits
• Loss of vision and hearing
3. Learning difficulties and seizures
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 38
288. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 39
Specific Learning Objectives
• Lesions of Corticospinal Tract
• Lesions of the extrapyramidal tract
• Reveiw Questions
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
289. Diseases affecting Extrapyramidal system
• Characterized by difficulty in initiating voluntary movements.
• Appearance of involuntary movements.
• Impairment of balancing and orienting reflexes.
• Alteration of muscle tone.
• Muscle strength is usually unaffected
290. DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 41
Specific Learning Objectives
• Lesions of Corticospinal Tract
• Lesions of the extrapyramidal tract
• Reveiw Questions
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM
296. One-word answers
1. The receptor for inverse stretch reflex is ……. 2021
2. In spinal cord the dorsal root is sensory and the ventral root is motor, this
law is called ……… 2021
Short Essay (5 marks)
1. Draw a diagram to show the origin, course and termination of Corticospinal
tract 2019
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 47
297. Physiological basis
1. Clasp Knife Rigidity. 2014
2. Babinski’s Sign in newborn. 2015
3. Abnormal plantar in neurological diseases. 2016
4. Cogwheel Rigidity. 2017
5. UMN Lesions produce hypertonia. 2018
6. Pyramidal Tract Lesions produces exaggerated deep tendon reflexes. 2019
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 48
298. Answer briefly
1. Stretch Reflex 2013
Draw and label:
1. Stretch and Inverse Stretch Reflex. 2012
2. Corticospinal/ Pyramidal Tract. 2011, 2016, 2019, 2020
3. Functional areas of cerebral cortex. 2014, 2020
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY, GMCM 49