Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
Product Syllabus : product syllabuses are those in which the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction.
4.2. process syllabuses are those which focus on the learning experiences themselves.
. Synthetic syllabus: segment the target language into discrete linguistic items.
Different parts of language are taught separately.
4.4 . Analytic Syllabi: focus on the learner and his needs and on the kinds of linguistic
performance necessary to achieve those goals .
4.5. Type A: This type deals with what should be learned in a second language classroom.
4.6. Type B : Consider the question of how a second language should be learned.
7.1 The Importance of Worker Motivation What motivates people .docxevonnehoggarth79783
7.1 The Importance of Worker Motivation
What motivates people at work? For the past century, I/O psychologists have been trying to answer this elusive question. Think about how you might answer it. Do coworkers motivate you? Rewards? Perhaps the fear of punishment? No matter how you respond, chances are your reasons for doing your job differ from those of your friends, family, and coworkers. Because everyone has different needs, values, emotions, and personality traits, each person will likewise possess a different set of factors that drive his or her motivation. The indeterminate number of variables that influence motivation are what makes studying this topic difficult.
Despite the challenges, researchers have, over time, gained considerable insight into how to improve worker motivation. This chapter is divided into two sections: The first deals with content and process theories of motivation, and the second focuses on ways in which organizations can improve worker motivation. Before discussing the theories, however, let's begin by defining motivation and identifying its basic properties.
What Is Motivation?
Motivation is one of the most basic and important drivers of human behavior, especially when we work. Traditionally, motivation has been viewed as a goal-oriented process that starts with a need or a deficiency. People have an inherent drive to act or behave in certain ways in order to meet a goal or alleviate a deficiency.
The three basic elements of motivation are intensity, persistence, and direction. Each of these elements is required in order for a person to perform a job well. People most commonly think of intensity, or the amount of effort an individual puts into achieving a goal, when they think about motivation. However, the direction of the effort also matters: Workers must direct their efforts toward behaviors that lead to positive outcomes for the organization. Finally, workers must demonstrate persistence—that is, they must be able to continue working until they achieve the desired outcome. A motivated worker, then, will apply effort (intensity) as long as it takes (persistence) in such a way (direction) as to achieve the desired goal.
7.2 Theories of Motivation
Concepts in Motion:
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
In general, the various theories and writings on motivation can be described as focusing on either content or process. Content theories of motivation try to comprehensively identify what motivates people, whereas process theories of motivation attempt to discover how motivators trigger the drives that can lead to behavior. Both types of theories are important and informative for people interested in motivating themselves and others by managing the antecedents and conditions that can facilitate desirable behaviors. To begin, let's look at four content theories: Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's twofactor theory, Alderfer's existence-relatedness-growth (ERG) theory, and McClelland's needs theory.
Maslo.
23March 2010Vol. 22 No. 1Engineering Management Journal
HDM Modeling as a Tool to Assist Management With
Employee Motivation: The Case of Silicon Forest
Georgina Harell, Portland State University
Tugrul U. Daim, Portland State University
the various options more than once, and put a number to the
importance of one option over another.
This study shows a pathway to employee motivation more than
the traditional HDM approach which has the end result being one
choice. The group survey results provide a better understanding of
the differences and the specific values of the groups and smaller
sub-groups. For example, management can conclude from this
survey that women’s tangible motivators are pay and bonuses
followed by outside environment and working conditions.
Literature Review
The theory of human motivation started as an interest of
psychologists, but managers soon realized the importance of
knowing how to motivate their workforce. The work of human
motivation started as early as the Greeks (Skinner, 1965), and
is still intriguing many researchers today. Motivation through
conditioning responses has been explored in great detail since the
late 19th century. The most famous account of conditioned responses
has to be that of Pavlov’s dog—where a dog was conditioned to
salivate at the sound of a bell by repeatedly reinforcing that after a
certain sound food would be presented. This type of response has
been termed a conditioned reflex. In short, the subject has been
trained to produce a response normally associated with stimulus
A when stimulus B is presented. Pavlov’s work was just the tip
of the iceberg in terms of understanding human behavior in
response to a stimulus (Skinner, 1965). E.L. Thorndike expanded
the knowledge of human behavior by exploring the concept of
learning curves. Thorndike did considerable research examining
how long it took creatures to solve a simple problem, for example,
how to escape from a latched box. Thorndike noted that initially
the creature would take a considerable amount of time to solve the
problem, but after more and more attempts at the same situation
the solution came more and more quickly. Learning curves help
clarify how behavior in complex situations are sorted, emphasized,
and reordered. Thorndike’s work is a pivotal step toward the more
modern concept of operant conditioning (Skinner, 1965).
Operant conditioning is far more complicated than the
simple notion of reflex conditioning illustrated by Pavlov.
Operant conditioning looks at human behavior as a complicated
series of tendencies, and rather than looking at responses as either
happening or not happening, operant conditioning considers
a response as having a probability of occurring. By examining
human behavior as a probability of a response occurring, more
complicated interactions can be examined. There are two points
in operant conditioning—operant reinforcement, where a subject
is conditioned ...
Motivation is the process that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
"Motivation is everything… you have to inspire the next guy down the line and get him to inspire his people." – Lee Iacocca
Chapter 13 MotivationLEARNING OUTCOMESOn completing this chap.docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 13: Motivation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completing this chapter you should be able to define these key concepts. You should also understand:
· The meaning of motivation
· Types of motivation
· The different motivation theories
· Motivation and job satisfaction
· Approaches to developing a motivation strategy
Introduction
Motivation is the force that energizes, directs and sustains behaviour. High performance is achieved by well-motivated people who are prepared to exercise discretionary effort, ie independently do more than is expected of them. Even in fairly basic roles, Hunter et al (1990) found through their research that the difference in value-added discretionary performance between ‘superior’ and ‘standard’ performers was 19 per cent. For highly complex jobs it was 48 per cent. The aims of this chapter are to explore the meaning of motivation, define the two main types of motivation – intrinsic and extrinsic, describe and critically evaluate the main theories of motivation, discuss two related aspects of motivation – its relationship to job satisfaction and money, and outline approaches to motivation strategy.
The meaning of motivation
The term ‘motivation’ derives from the Latin word for movement (movere). A motive is a reason for doing something. Motivation is the strength and direction of behaviour and the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways. People are motivated when they expect that a course of action is likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward – one that satisfies their needs and wants. The term ‘motivation’ can refer variously to the goals that individuals have, the ways in which individuals chose their goals and the ways in which others try to change their behaviour. Locke and Latham (2004: 388) observed that: ‘The concept of motivation refers to internal factors that impel action and to external factors that can act as inducements to action.’
As described by Arnold et al (1991) the three components of motivation are:
1. Direction – what a person is trying to do.
2. Effort – how hard a person is trying.
3. Persistence – how long a person keeps on trying.
Well-motivated people engage in positive discretionary behaviour – they decide to make an effort. Such people may be self-motivated, and as long as this means they are going in the right direction to attain what they are there to achieve, then this is the best form of motivation. But additional motivation provided by the work itself, the quality of leadership, and various forms of recognition and reward, builds on self-motivation and helps people to make the best use of their abilities and to perform well.
Types of motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation takes place when individuals feel that their work is important, interesting and challenging and that it provides them with a reasonable degree of autonomy (freedom to act), opportunities to achieve and advance, and scope to use and develop their skills and abilities. .
111Chapter 5 Motivation in Organizations1115MOTIVATION.docxmoggdede
111
Chapter 5: Motivation in Organizations
1115
MOTIVATION AT WORK
Chapter Scan
This is the first of two chapters on motivation, behavior, and performance. This chapter addresses the early content theories of motivation that are related to the internal factors that explain behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McGregor's assumptions are discussed and compared. McClelland's need theory is presented, followed by a discussion of Herzberg's two-factor theory of hygiene factors and motivators. Process theories contained in this chapter include equity theory, social exchange theory, and expectancy theory.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1.
Define motivation.
2.
Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
3.
Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
4.
Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.
5.
Describe how inequity influences individual motivation and behavior.
6.
Explain seven different strategies for resolving inequity.
7.
Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
8.
Describe the cultural differences in motivation.
KEY TERMS
Chapter 5 introduces the following key terms:
motivation
psychoanalysis
self-interest
need hierarchy
Theory X
Theory Y
need for achievement
need for power
need for affiliation
motivation factor
hygiene factor
inequity
equity sensitive
benevolent
entitled
valence
expectancy
instrumentality
moral maturityTHE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I. THINKING AHEAD: Noncompliance as a Hidden Health Threat
II.
MOTIVATION AND WORK BEHAVIOR
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Motivation theories attempt to explain and predict observable behavior. Motivation theories may be classified as internal, process, or external theories. This is one of the most complex topics in organizational behavior because of the large number of variables that affect motivation.
A.
Internal Needs
Motivation research is increasingly specific, and examines smaller portions of the larger theories. Writers have looked for internal, value-oriented reasons for motivation that would relate to the meaning of work for society. The Protestant ethic was related to the concept of working hard in order to secure a place in heaven. In contrast, Freud developed psychoanalysis as a method of probing the subconscious mind to understand a person’s motives and needs.
B.
External Incentives
Early scholars assumed that self-interest and economic gain motivated people. The Hawthorne studies revealed the importance of social and interpersonal motivation. Early theories of motivation typically took one of two perspectives. The first perspective was that people acted out of self-interest for material gain. The second perspective suggested that people act in ways that satisfy their emotional needs. Adam Smith's basic assumption was that people are motivated by self-interest for economic ...
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This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
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Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
3. Introduction
Motivation
is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act
towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains
certain goal directed behaviors. It can be considered a
driving force; a psychological one that compels or
reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For
example, hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to
eat.
4. Aim
To hypothesize Motivation
Process through incorporating
a number of early and
contemporary Motivational
theories.
and
from generally describing the
phenomenon of motivation to
specifically analyzing this
theory in educational field.
5. Sequence
Part 1
What is Motivation?
Early Motivational Theories
a. Maslow‟s Need Hierarchy Theory
Part 2
b. McGregor‟s Theory X Theory X
c. Herzberg‟s Two-Factor Theory
6. Sequence
Part 3
Contemporary Motivational Theories
Expectancy Theory
Motivation in Learning L2
The Integrative Motivation
Part 4
The Instrumental Motivation
The Resultative Motivation
The Intrinsic Motivation
8. Definitions of Motivation
“Motivation is the process of arousing the action
sustaining the activity in process and regulating the pattern
of activity.”
Younge
“Motivation refers to states within a person or animal that
drives behaviour towards some goal.”
Morgan and King
9. Nature of Motivation
Based on
Motives
Affected by
motivating
Goal directed
behaviour
Related to
satisfaction
Person is
motivated in
totality
Complex
process
11. Needs and Drives
Motivation may be defined in terms of some
outward behavior.
It is the
willingness to do something
and is conditioned by this action’s ability to satisfy
some need for the individual.
12. Needs & Drives
An unsatisfied need
creates tension, which
stimulates drives
within the individual.
These drives generate
a
search for particular
goals
that, if attained, will
satisfy the need and
lead to the reduction
of tension.
13. The Motivation Mind Map
There are a number of key
theories in relation to
motivation.
The Motivation Mind Map
identifies the main ones.
Before we look in more
detail at these, let's look a
little further into the nature
of motivation.
14.
15. Early Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
1943 paper "A Theory of
Human Motivation"
Theory X andTheoryY
1960s at MIT Sloan School of
Management
Two FactorTheory
1959 bookThe Motivation to Work.
16. Maslow‟s Need Hierarchy Theory
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
is a theory in psychology proposed by
Abraham Maslow
in his 1943 paper
A Theory of Human Motivation.
Maslow subsequently extended the
idea to include his observations of
humans' Innate curiosity.
His theories parallel many other
theories of human developmental
psychology, some of which focus
on describing the stages of growth
in humans.
17. Model of Maslow‟s Need Hierarchy
PHYSIOLOGICAL OR SURVIVAL NEEDS
SAFETY NEEDS
Social Needs
ESTEEM NEEDS
SELF-
ACTUALIZATION
19. Key Notes of Maslow‟s Theory
As each is satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
A substantially satisfied need no longer motivates.
Maslow separated the five needs into higher and lower
orders.
20. Appreciation and Criticism on Maslow’s
Theory
Maslow’s need theory has received wide recognition,
particularly among practicing managers.
This acceptance is due to the logic and ease with which
the theory is intuitively understood.
However, research does not generally validate the
theory.
There is little support for the pre-diction that need
structures are organized along the dimensions proposed.
Nor does the prediction that the substantial satisfaction
of a given need leads to the activation of the next higher
need seem true.
21. Theory X Theory Y
Theory X andTheoryY
are two extremes introduced by
Harvard Professor
Douglas McGregor
in his book
The Human Side of Enterprise.
It was published over 50 years
ago. Still, you can find both
theories in practice today.
THE CRITICAL PATH BY DEREK HUETHER
23. Criticism & Implications of McGregor’s
Analysis
Though the theory of x and y are not absolute in
how human nature plays out in our places of work,
there will always be those among us who are
polarizing and think of life as a side of a coin.
Theory X assumes that lower-order needs
dominate individuals.
TheoryY assumes that higher-order needs
dominate individuals.
Unfortunately, no evidence confirms that either set of
assumptions is valid.
24. Two-Factor Theory
Frederick Herzberg (1959),
a behavioural scientist proposed
a two-factor theory or the motivator-
hygiene theory.
According to Herzberg, there are
some job factors that result in
satisfaction while there are other job
factors that prevent dissatisfaction.
According to Herzberg, the opposite
of “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction”
and the opposite of “Dissatisfaction”
is
“No Dissatisfaction”.
26. Criticism on Two-Factor Theory
The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.
Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction
and productivity. But the research conducted by
Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored
productivity.
No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used.
An employee may find his job acceptable despite the
fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these
limitations, Herzberg‟s Two-Factor theory is
acceptable broadly.
27. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
McClelland’sTheory of Needs
Goal-SettingTheory
ReinforcementTheory
Job DesignTheory
EquityTheory
ExpectancyTheory
28.
29.
30.
31. Expectancy Theory
In 1964, Vroom developed the
Expectancy theory
through his study of the
motivations
behind decision making.
His theory is relevant to the study
of management.
32. Expectancy Theory
The most comprehensive explanation of motivation is
expectancy theory. Expectancy theory argues that the
strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on
the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed
by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual.
Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory
which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality
(I). The three elements are important behind choosing one
element over another because they are clearly defined:
effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy),
performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy).
33. Model of Expectancy Theory
http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/NC/B0/B66/057MB66.html
34. Motivation in Learning a Language
Language teachers readily acknowledge the importance of
learner‟s motivation.
Like “Language Aptitude” the discussion of “Motivation”
occurs in Second rather than First Language Learning.
SLA research views motivation as a key factor in L2 learning.
If to satisfy our needs, to influence the actions and thoughts of
others, to pursue our occupation and our recreation, it is
necessary to use foreign language, then we will learn that
foreign language more rapidly and more effectively than under
any other condition.
However, there have been differences in the way in which
teachers and researchers have conceptualized motivation ( see
Crookes and Schmidt 1990)
The Study of Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
35. Skehan’s Hypotheses
Skehan (1989) puts forward four hypotheses:
These hypotheses have their associates in the study of
motivation in SLA research, but the Internal Cause
Hypothesis has gained a great deal of researcher's
attention.
The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
36. Skehan’s Hypotheses
1. The Intrinsic Hypothesis:
motivation derives from an inherent interest in the learning tasks the
learner is asked to perform.
2. The Resultative Hypothesis:
learners who do well will persevere, those who do not do well will
be discouraged and try less hard.
3. The Internal Cause Hypothesis:
the learner brings to learning situation a certain quantity of
motivation as given.
4. The Carrot and Stick Hypothesis: external
influences and incentives will affect the strength of the learner‟s
motivation.
The Study of Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
37. Integrated Motivation
Howard Earl Gardner
is an American
developmental psychologist at
Harvard University.
He is best known for his
theory of multiple intelligences,
as outlined in his book
Frames of Mind:TheTheory of
Multiple Intelligences (1983).
39. Integrative Motivation
According to Gardner‟s socio-educational model, an
integrative orientation involves an interest in learning L2
because of a sincere and personal interest in people and
culture represented by other language group‟ (Lambert
1974: 98).
Gardner has become increasingly critical of research that
focuses narrowly on the role of orientation in L2 learning,
arguing that effects of learners‟ orientation are meditated
by their motivation- that is , whereas orientation and L2
achievement are only indirectly related, motivation and
achievement are directly related.
The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
40. What is Integrative Motivation
As Gardner has given different
operational definitions of this concept in
his studies, the answer to this question is
not that clear (Crookes and Schmidt
(1989).
Gardner‟s research rests on the use of
self-report questionnaires.
Questions related to a number of
Orientation and Motivational variables
are included and learner‟s response are
factor-analysed in order to study general
factors.
One of the factors that has emerged from
this procedure is Integrative Motivation.
The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
41. Integrative Motivation
The following table includes the variable “integrative
orientation” together with a number of other variables
that are concerned with the learners‟ interest, attitude and
desire regarding the learning of French.
42. Variable Questionnaire Item Example
Attitude towards
French Canadians
Five positively worded
and five negatively
worded items
“If Canada should lose
the French culture of
Quebec, it could
indeed be a great loss.”
Interest in Foreign
Language
Five items expressing
positive interest and
five relative disinterest
“I enjoy meeting and
listening to people who
speak other
languages.”
Integrative orientation Four items expressing
the importance of
learning French for
integrative reasons.
“Studying French can
be important as it
allows people to
participate more freely
in the activities of other
cultural groups.”
Desire to learn French Three positive and
three negative items
“I wish I were fluent in
French.”
43. Gardner asserts that whereas instrumental motivation
emerges as an important factor in some studies, the
integrative motivation has been found perpetually
relevant to L2 achievement.
According to him learners can have both instrumental and
integrative motivation.
Muchnick and Wolfe (1982) found that 337 students of
Spanish in high school in the United States could not
possibly separate the integrated and instrumental
motivation.
The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
44. Instrumental Motivation
The carrot and stick hypothesis sees external
incentives and influences as determinants of
learner‟s motivational strength.
It is useful to distinguish “orientation” and
“motivation”.
Gardner and Macintyre (1991) measure
“orientation” by means of self-report
questionnaire.
They equate “instrumental motivation” with
giving students a financial reward for
performing a task successfully.
45. Machiavellian Motivation
Ely (1986b) investigated the types of motivations in first-
year university students of Spanish in the USA. He found
that both types of motivation, though emerging as separate
factors, were present in the same students.
46. The studies of Oller, Beca and Vigil (1977) have failed to
locate a correlation between the integrative motivation and
L2 achievement.
Their research found out that women in California who
rated Anglo people negatively were more successful in
learning English than those who rated them positively.
Oller and Perkins (1978) suggest that some learners may
be motivated to excel because of the negative attitude
towards the target language community.
47. Gardner‟s defense
Gardner (1980) has vigoroulsy defended his findings by
pointing out a big number of studies which have reported
a significant effect for integrative motivation, and
attacking the self report questionnaires used in the studies
of Oller and associates.
48. Research on instrumental motivation
Much of the research whereas shows instrumental
motivation as a weak predictor of a foreign language
achievement in several Canadian studies, (see Gardner and
Lambert 1972), it seems to be much more influential in
other contexts where learners have little or no interest in
the target language culture and few or no opportunities to
communicate with its members.
The social situation determines both what type of
orientation learners have and what kind is most important
for language learning.
The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
49. Conclusion of Integrative Motivation
Integrative motivation has been shown to be strongly
related to L2 achievement.
It combines with instrumental motivation to serve as a
powerful predictor of success in formal contexts.
Learners with integrative motivation are more active in
class and are less likely to drop out.
However, integrativeness is not always the main
motivational factor in L2 learning.
Learners living in bilingual areas, may be more influenced
by other factors like self-confidence or friendship.
50. Criticism
There also have been a number of limitations
to the research model that has been used to
study integrative motivation.
It takes no cognizance of the latent effect that
learning experiences can have on learners‟
motivation, as opposed to the effect that
motivation has on learning.
51. Financial rewards
There have been few researches that have investigated the
direct effect of instrumental motivation .
Dunkel (1948) (cited in Gardner and Macintyre 1992)
awarded financial rewards to students learning Farsi.
He found out that although there was not a significantly
better performance on the Grammar test, there was
tendency in this direction.
52. Gardner and Macintyre1991) report a study in which 46
university psychology students were rewarded $10 if they
succeeded in doing a vocabulary task, while the same
number was told to do their best.
The students offered the reward did significantly better,
but they did not perform better on the last part trial, when
the possibility of reward no longer existed.
The Study of Second Language Acquisition (Rod Ellis)
53. Conclusion and Criticism
This lead Gardner and Macintyre to the
conclusion that once any chance of getting a
reward is eliminated, learns may stop applying
extra effort.
They see this as a major limitation of
instrumental motivation.
54. Resultative Motivation
Gardner (1985) asserts that motivation constitutes a
causative variable, although he is flexible in accepting that
some variations in learners‟ attitudes can result from
positive learning experiences, particularly in courses of a
short duration.
55. Research on Resultative Motivation
Spolsky (1989) reviews a number of studies which
suggest that “while greater motivation and attitudes lead to
better learning, the converse is not true” (1989: 153).
Other studies, however, demonstate that learners‟
motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.
Hermann (1980) also suggested that success plays a
essential role in motivation.
56. Hermann advanced the „Resultative
Hypothesis‟ which asserts that learners who
perform well develop strong motivation and
are much more active in the classroom.
The Resulative Hypothesis may be applicable
only to those contexts where learners have
very low initial motivation.
57. Conclusion
The relationship between motivation
and achievement is an interactive one.
A high level of motivation stirs
learning, but perceived success in
achieving L2 goals can help to
maintain existing motivation and
even creates new types.
Vicious
circle of
low
motivation
Low
motivation
Low
achievement
Lower
motivation
58. Motivation as Intrinsic Interest
As Finnocchiaro (1981) puts in:
Motivation is the feeling nurtured primarily by the
classroom teacher in the learning situation. The
moment of truth- the enhancement of motivation-
occurs when the teacher closes the classroom door,
greets his students with a warm, welcoming smile and
proceeds to interact with various individuals by
making comments or asking questions which indicate
personal concern.
59. The notion of „intrinsic motivation‟ is an old one in
psychology.
It was developed as a substitute to goal- directed theories
of motivation that highlight the role of extrinsic rewards
and punishments.
Keller (1984) (cited in Crooks and Schmidt 1989)
identifies “interest” as one of the main elements of
motivation defining it as a positive response to stimuli
based on existing cognitive structures in such a way that
learners‟ curiosity is aroused and sustained.
60. Research on Intrinsic Method
One way in which intrinsic interest in L2 learning can be
achieved is by providing opportunities for communication.
McNamara (1973) claims that ‘ the really important part
of motivation lies in the act of communication.’
Rossier (1975) also emphasizes the importance of a desire
to communicate, arguing that without this an integrative
motivation may not be effective.
61. One possibility supported by a strong pedagogic literature
is that interest is engendered if learners become self-
directed (i.e are able to determine their own learning
objectives, choose their own way of achieving these, and
evaluate their own progress).
Dickinson refers to the study of Bachman (1964) which
suggested that engaging students in decision-making
tended to lead to increased motivation, and thereby, to
increased productivity.
62. Conclusion
Motivation in L2 learning constitutes one of the most fully
researched areas of individual differences.
The bulk of the research, however has rested rather
narrowly on integrative and instrumental motivation,
relying exclusively on self-report questionnaire and
correlation designs.
Little work on motivation as intrinsic interest has taken
place.
Also little attention has been paid to the effect of
motivation on the process of learning.
63. Crookes and Schimdt (1989)
argue that research that correlates
teachers‟ and learners‟ actions
to „persistence‟ and „effort‟ in
language learning would have a
more „real-world- impact.
Skehan (1989; 1991) argues for
more research on motivation in
naturalistic as opposed to
classroom settings.