motivasi at work b.inggris

1. MotivationAtWork
Shafira Amalia (1724090009)
Fadhila Janera (1724090026)
Tetra Silviana (1724090089)
Melsiade Fitri (1724090117)
Mustika Permatasari (1724090127)
Maryam Nabilah Tofani (1724090129)
Lutviah Deanti (1724090176)
Syafira Kayanti (1724090186)
Husna Mitsali (1724090204)
Nabilah Herda Hamid (1724090205)
M. Maulana Malik H (1724090214)
Firdha Aprivha Dewi (1724090217)
Chapter 8

2. An Introduction to
Motivation
1

3. TheCentralPositionofMotivationinPsychology
● Motivation concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity,
persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior (Vinacke, 1962).
● The motivation of workers has been a key interest for I-O psychologists for a
hundred years (Munsterberg, 1913).
● The psychologists understanding of motivation has progressed from kittens on
the factory floor to elaborate models involving worker expectancies, goals,
feelings of competence, and vastly more interesting tasks for the worker to
perform.

4. ABriefHistoryofMotivationTheoryinI-OPsychology
• The earliest I-O theories of motivation were anchored in the notions of instincts, principaly driven by
psychodynamic theories of personality, most notably Freud’s approach. Instincts were thought to be inborn
tendencies that directed behavior.
• The term “instinct” was gradually replaced with terms such as “need”, “motive”, and “drive” (Viteles, 1953).
• In 1943, Maslow proposed a need theory that replaced an infinite number of “instincts” with a specific set of needs.
Like instincts, needs were thought to be inborn and universally present in human.
• At about the time that Maslow’s need theory was becoming widely known, the behavior-ism of B.F. Skinner (1938)
was also becoming a powerful force. The behaviorist approach placed the emphasis for behavior directly on the
environment rather than on any internal needs or instincts. This caused disagreements between the behaviorists
and nonbehaviorists.

5. • Other, broader approaches also allowed for the influence of the environment, but in a much less mechanical
way than suggested by behaviors. An example of this broader approach was Lewin’s field theory.
• Between 1940 and 1960, the struggle for preeminence in motivation theory was between the behavorists and
the need theorists. By 1960, the emergence of cognitive psychology had resulted in a radical shift in the battle
for “motivational superiority”. New motivational theories emerged that emphasized the thought and decision
processes of the individual. Today’s theories of motivation are largely cognitive and emotional at their
foundation. The differences among them are more a matter of what people think about and how they think
about choosing courses of action rather than any dispute regarding whether thought enters into moviation.

6. MetaphorsforMotivation
● Weiner (1991, 1992) suggested that the best way
to gain an understanding of the wide variation in
motivational theories, as well as the evolution of
motivational thinking, is through the use of
metaphors.
● Weiner suggests that all motivational theories can
be described by one of two metaphors: the person
as machine and the person and scientists.

7. • Machines have the following
properties: They have parts that
interacts, they have a function, their
behaviors/actions are reflexive and
involuntary and performed without
conscious awareness; instead, their
actions and reactions are controlled
by activating stimuli.
• Freudian psychoanalytic theory, drive
theory propsed by animal learning
theoirsts, behaviorism, and some
version of the field theory of Lewin all
suport the metaphor of person as
machine.
Person as Machine Person as Scientist
• In contrast to machines, scientists are
thought to be reflective rather than
reflexive, intentional rather than
automatic, and perfectly rational.
• The problem with this theory is that it
assumes that the individuals are
perfectly rational: They aren’t.

8. Because of the growing recognition that individuals are not perfectly rational, newer
theories of motivation have been emerging, theories that allow for the influence of
emotionality on decision making. This in turn had led to a greater emphasis on the social
world; the world outside the individual, as opposed to a focus on a completely internal
process by which an individual calculates probabilities.
Modern motivational theory tends to view the individual as an active information
gatherer (the scientist metaphor) rather than a passive respondent to either internal or
external stimuli (the machine metaphor). Furthermore, it is increasingly obvious that
the individual is influenced by social information in the form of attributions involving
the intentions of others (the person as judge metaphor).

9. TheMeaningandImportanceofMotivationintheWorkplace
In Vitele’s (1953) pioneering book on motivation in the workplace, it was clear that he
equated motivation with productivity. He saw motivation as the method by which an
employer “aroused the cooperation of individual workers”. In the time since Viteles’s
book apeared, I-O psychologists have not appreciably changed their general
acceptance of the connections among the constructs of motivation, performance, and
productivity. Indeed, Pritchard (1995) has developed an intricate performance and
productivity measurement system called ProMES based on the premise that
increasing the amount of time and effort that an individual devotes to a task will result
in high levels of personal performance and increased productivity for the organization.
Motivation and Performance

10. A very basic model for considering the role of motivation
in performance is the following:
Performance = (Motivation × Ability) – Situational Constraints
If motivation is equal to zero, then ability will not
matter since anything times zero equals zero. It means
that even modest increases in ability can be magnified
by motivation.

11. Motivation and Work–Life Balance
Area of research that investigates
whether the satisfaction that one
experiences at work is in part
affected by the satisfaction that
one experiences in non‐work and
vice versa, particularly to the
extent that one environment has
demands that conflict with the
other.

12. Motivation and Personality
Personality can be a predictor of work performance and possibly even occupational
Personality can be a predictor of work performance and possibly even occupational choice. Since we know
that motivation can also affect work performance, it is reasonable to consider what, if any, connections may
exist between personality and work motivation.
Personality can be a predictor of work performance and possibly even occupational
Judge and Ilies (2002) examined the relationship between measures of the Big Five personality traits and
various indicators of motivation from several current motivational theories. These indicators included the
number and difficulty of goals set by an individual, belief on the part of the individual that hard work would
lead to rewards, and belief on the part of the individual in his or her ability to perform a task or job.
Personality can be a predictor of work performance and possibly even occupational
The results showed that strong and consistent relationships do exist between personality characteristics and
performance motivation. Neuroticism was consistently negatively related to performance motivation (recall
that the positive end of the neuroticism scale is emotional stability). In contrast, conscientiousness was
positively related to all indicators of performance motivation. Put another way, conscientious and
emotionally stable individuals set more challenging goals, were more likely to believe that hard work would
lead to rewards, and were more confident in their ability to accomplish a task or job.

13. Research evidence continues to accumulate linking personality to motivation. Ng,Sorenson,
and Eby (2006) conducted a meta‐analysis of the relationships between locus of control and
motivation. Locus of control (LOC) refers to the extent to which an individual views events as
resulting from his or her own actions (an internal LOC) or from outside causes (an external
LOC). People with an internal LOC believe that they can control their environments; people
with an external LOC believe that they are at the mercy of external environments with little
ability to influence outcomes. The researchers’ meta‐analysis showed a clear and positive
connection between an internal LOC and work motivation. The point here is not that people
with an internal LOC are in better objective circumstances for affecting outcomes, just that
they believe they can control their fates. Xenikou (2005) also found a positive relationship
between an optimistic view of life (called a positive attributional style) and work motivation
among Greek managerial and nonmanagerial employees. Further, she discovered that this
optimism seemed to diminish with organizational tenure such that after four years with an
organization, employees tended to grow more pessimistic in outlook.

14. MotivationalTheories—Classic
Approaches
2

15. AnInternalMechanicalTheory:Maslow’sNeedTheory
Maslow’s need theory,Theory that proposed that
all humans have a basic set of needs and that these
needs express themselves over the life span of the
individual as internal “pushes” or drives.
Identified five basic needs sets:
Physiological
Security
Self
Actualization
Love or Social
Esteem
In Maslow’s theory, individuals would be motivated to fulfill the most basic set of unfulfilled needs. Thus,
if an individual’s physiological and security needs were fulfilled, then the individual would expend energy
attempting to fulfill the love needs. When the love needs were met, the individual would be motivated by
circumstances that would satisfy the esteem needs, and so on. Should a lower‐level need that had once been
satisfied reemerge (e.g., a life‐threatening illness occurs to a formerly healthy person), the person would
immediately revert to actions that might satisfy that now‐unsatisfied lower‐level need

16. VariationsonMaslow’sTheory
Theory proposed by
Herzberg that suggested
that there were really two
basic needs,not five as
suggested by Maslow, and
that they were not so much
hierarchically arranged as
independent of each other.
Level needs described in
Herzberg’s two‐factor theory.
Herzberg proposed that meeting
these needs would eliminate
dissatisfaction but would not
result in motivated behavior or a
state of positive satisfaction.
Level needs described in
Herzberg’s two‐factor theory.
Herzberg proposed that meeting
such needs resulted in the
expenditure of effort as well as
satisfaction.
Two‐factor theory Hygiene needs-Lower Motivator needs-Higher

17. AnExternalMechanicalTheory:ReinforcementTheory
Reinforcement theory, proposes that behavior depends on three simple elements: stimulus, response,
and reward. Proposed that if a response in the presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded
(i.e.,reinforced), that response is likely to occur again in the presence of that stimulus.
Kinds of Reinforcement
Contingent Reward
A reward that depends on or is contingent on a particular response.
Intermittent Reward
A reward that is given for only some correct responses.
Continuous Reward
A reward that is presented every time a correct response occurs.

18. Person‐as‐ScientistTheories
The key ingredient in this approach was the capacity of an individual to
both learn from the past and anticipate the future. This allowed for the
possibility of intentional behavior, planning, goal acceptance, and,
most importantly, choice. The mechanical theories did not include the
concept of choice in any formal way. To use Weiner’s
person‐as‐scientist metaphor, workers were now seen as rational
beings capable of gathering and analyzing information and making
decisions based on that information.

19. Vroom’sVIETheory
Valence
Valence refers to the
attracting or repelling force
of an element. Vroom
reasoned that psychological
objects in an environment
also have attracting and
repelling forces. For most
people, money would be
attracting, and uninteresting
work would be repelling. For
the most part, this element of
Vroom’s theory.
Intrumentality
Intrumentality deals with the
relationship between
performance and the
attaintment of a certain
outcome. Consider a
promotion. A promotion
usually means a higher
salary as well as increased
prestige. But it may also
include increased
responsibility, longer hours,
and even lower total annual
compensation
Expectancy
The third element of the
theory, expectancy, had
to do with an
individual’s belief that
increased effort would
lead to successful
performance. When we
put the three elements
(V, I, E) together, we
can see the complete
theory.

20. EquityTheory
Adams (1965) transplanted Festinger’s ideas to the
workplace and developed a theory that has come to be
known as equity theory. He suggested that individuals
look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and
outcomes. They calculate what they are investing in
their work (e.g., training, effort, abilities) and what they
get out of it (e.g., compensation, co‐workers, interest
level of the work itself). They then compare their inputs
and outcomes to those of comparison others (e.g.,
peers, co‐workers) by developing a ratio. If their own
outcome/input ratio is identical to the outcome/input
ratio of their comparison other, then there would be no
tension and no subsequent action to relieve that
tension.

21. ModernApproaches
toWorkMotivation
3

22. Person‐as‐IntentionalApproaches
Goal Setting Theory
Person‐as‐intentional approach, motivational approach that assumes that
individuals are intentional in their behavior.
Goal‐setting theory proposed by Locke and colleagues in
which the general concept of a goal is adapted to work
motivation. In this approach, a goal is seen as a
motivational force, and individuals who set specific, difficult
goals perform better than individuals who simply adopt a
“do your best” goal or no goal at all.

23. Goal‐setting theory identifies the mechanisms, or intermediate
states, by which goals affect performance. Locke and colleagues
(1981) proposed that goals have the effect of “directing attention
and action (direction), mobilizing energy expenditure or effort
(effort), prolonging effort over time (persistence) and motivating
the individual to develop relevant strategies for goal attainment
(strategy)”.
Another important factor is the feedback loop connection between
knowledge of results and the intermediate states that occur between goal
commitment and performance. This feedback loop is associated with
what has come to be known as control theory. Theory based on the
principle of a feedback loop that assumes that an individual compares a
standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome
into agreement with the standard.

24. ChallengesforGoal‐SettingTheory
The research design needs to include more complex cognitive work. In addition,
Locke (2001) acknowledges that research efforts should be directed toward integrating
variables such as knowledge and skill into the model. Some researchers have begun an
ambitious program of examining the effect of goal setting on complex cognitive tasks (Atkins,
Wood, & Rutgers, 2002; Wood, George‐Falvy, & Debowsky, 2001).
These research designs include some very relevant cognitive tasks, such as
conducting automated literature searches on the Internet and examining the effect of the
form of feedback on decision making. This is exactly the type of research that can help
goal‐setting theory remain relevant.

25. LevelsofExplanationinGoalSetting
Goal‐setting theory is just a first‐level explanation of behavior. These would be
second‐level explanations of goal‐setting theory. Example of a person who has a goal to become CEO
within 15 years of joining the company, a goal deriving from a motive of ambition. Another example, the
notion of the Type A personality. The Type A person is likely to set multiple and difficult goals,
particularly when competing with others. Still a higher order, or third level, of explanation would
investigate where motives or values originate. As you will recall, Maslow suggested that motives were
inborn. All three of these levels describe an influence on action or behavior, but at increasingly higher
levels. Goal setting theory proposes that needs influence motives, motives influence goals, and goals
influence performance.
The notion of levels of explanation leads us to examine other current theories of work
motivation. As you will see, goals and goal setting play an important role in these theories. In some
senses, the theories we will now consider are actually second‐level explanations of behavior in the
context of goals and goal setting. One way or another, they all include goals.

26. ControlTheoriesandtheConceptofSelf‐Regulation
All of these complications introduce another concept into the
motivational mix: the concept of self‐regulation. Cervone,
Shadel, Smith, and Fiori (2006) presented a detailed review of
the relationship between personality and self‐regulation.
Self‐regulation is compatible with control theory (Vancouver,
2005). Self‐regulation Process by which individuals take in
information about behavior and make adjustments or changes
based on that information. These changes, in turn, affect
subsequent behavior (e.g., strategies, goal commitment).

27. TheConceptofSelf‐EfficacyinModernMotivationTheory
Self‐efficacy
important role in most
modern theories of work
motivation.
(Bandura, 1986)
Self‐efficacy beliefs were more closely related to motivation and
behavior, while self‐esteem was more closely related to emotions.
(Chen, Gully, and Eden (2004))
Self‐efficacy is defined as the belief in one’s capacity to perform a
specific task or reach a specific goal (Bandura, 1997).
This is different from the broader notion of self‐esteem, which is
the pride (or lack thereof) in who one is as a human being, often
boosted by the satisfaction of having accomplished a difficult task.
Comparison between
Self‐esteem vs Self-efficacy?

28. • Mastery experiences. Successful performance of
challenging tasks strengthens beliefs in one’s
capabilities.
• Modeling. People have a tendency to compare
their capabilities with those of others.
• Social persuasion. Individuals can be
encouraged by others who express confidence in
their ability to accomplish a difficult task.
• Physiological states. Techniques that reduce the
experience of stress or fatigue will increase
one’s feelings of self‐efficacy when completing a
difficult task.
How can we put these approaches to work in
increasing our own self‐efficacy or the self‐efficacy
of a friend or coworker?
How it is developed and increased?
Wood and Bandura (1989) suggest four separate
avenues:
1. Provide guidance or technical or logistic support to
the individual, increasing the likelihood that he or
she will experience success on a challenging task.
2. Provide successful role models, perhaps by pairing
an individual with a fellow worker of similar
experience who has mastered a difficult task.
3. Be a targeted “cheerleader,” emphasizing the
individual’s knowledge and ability (as opposed to
simply expressing confidence that he or she will
succeed).
4. Take steps to reduce stress in the individual’s
environment that is unrelated to the challenging
task.

29. CommonThemesinModernMotivationApproaches
First, intention plays a key role in motivated behavior.
The most common form of that intention is a goal.
Second, the concept of feedback is critical if we are to
consider any but the simplest act at one point in time.
Third, the theory needs to include some element of the
person as scientist.
Fourth, the theory should include some concept of
self‐assessment.
Finally, there will be some noncognitive element in the
“ultimate” motivation theory.

30. ANewMotivationalTopic: TheEntrepreneur
Baron (2002, 2003) makes a strong case that entrepreneurship is a stable
part of the U.S. economy and that entrepreneurial activity should be a
topic studied by I‐O psychologists.
Frese and his colleagues documented the rise of entrepreneurial
activities in former socialist and Warsaw Pact countries following the
end of the Cold War (Utsch, Rauch, Rothfuss, & Frese, 1999).
Entrepreneurial activity in the Far East, particularly China, experienced
remarkable growth in the early years of the 21st century.
The research data on the precursors and correlates of entrepreneurial
activity are relatively new and thus are still tentative at this point.

31. Compared to their less entrepreneurial
colleagues, entrepreneurs:
● Recognize patterns of opportunity more easily and more quickly
● Are more socially skilled
● Are higher on self‐efficacy and perseverance/persistence
● Are more likely to set goals related to starting a new business
● Are higher on achievement motivation
● Are higher on conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion, and
openness to experience
● Are more passionate and tenacious in seeking entrepreneurial success
● Are more likely to be prone to downward biases in evaluating risk
● Were often raised in the context of a family business and have higher
levels of testosterone than non-entrepreneurs

32. In a 2014 meta‐analysis, Frese and Gielnik showed that several personality dimensions
(general self‐ efficacy, need for achievement, and entrepreneurial orientation) are highly
associated with two entrepreneurship outcomes, business creation and business success.
Frese and his colleagues (Krause et al., 2005; Rauch & Frese, 2007b)
have proposed that a central personality characteristic underlying
entrepreneurial behavior is entrepreneurial orientation (EO).
EO as a combination of achievement
orientation, risk‐taking orientation, and
personal initiative (PI)
Frese and his colleagues
have been examining entrepreneurial examining
entrepreneurial activity in small businesses in
several different cultures, including southern
Africa and Vietnam.

33. They found that common genes influenced the correlations
between the tendency to be an entrepreneur and both
extraversion and openness to experience.
Shane, Nicolaou, Cherkas, and Spector (2010)
examined two samples of twins from the United
Kingdom and the United States to determine whether
genetic factors account for part of the relationship
between the tendency to become an entrepreneur and
the Big Five personality dimensions.
Although the correlations between the tendency to be an entrepreneur and the
personality characteristics were not large, the authors found evidence that genetic
factors accounted for most of these correlations. Their findings are intriguing and
suggest that genetic factors should be considered in discussions about why
individuals become entrepreneurs.

34. ● They are all strongly achievement oriented. Nicholas
Khoo puts it best: “It feels good to . . . go against the big
boys and win.”
● They like to be in control rather than being controlled: As
Caitlin Adler says, “I could never work for somebody
else.”
● They all experienced failure early in the entrepreneurial
effort yet persevered in spite of the lack of success. Bart
Knaggs says, “Rejection . . . motivates me. I’m really
offended when I get rejected, and I feel compelled to
show whomever it is that he is wrong.”
● Even in the face of negative information about the
success of their enterprises, they remain optimistic. For
example, even though Jeff Takle’s property management
company is close to going under, he says, “We’re still on
track for building a self‐sustaining, profitable company.”
ENTREPRENEURIALATTRIBUTES
Real‐life entrepreneurs confirm
many of the characteristics
identified by the research that have
been reviewed. Consider four such
entrepreneurs: Caitlin Adler, Jeff
Takle, Nicholas Khoo, and Bart
Knaggs. Each of these
entrepreneurs’ stories reveals
similar elements:

35. PracticalIssuesin
Motivation
4

36. CanMotivationBeMeasured?
Motivation can be measured by indicators such as the difficulty of goals accepted by an
individual or the strength of a person’s belief that hard work will yield rewards.
Kanfer and her colleagues (Heggestad & Kanfer, 2001; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2000) have
developed an instrument known as the Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ).
Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ) A 48‐item questionnaire that provides a
standardized method of assessing six distinct aspects of general performance motivation.

37. DimensionsandSampleItemsfromthe
MotivationalTraitQuestionnaire
Desire to learn—the need to achieve by learning new skills or acquiring knowledge (“I prefer activities that provide me
with an opportunity to learn something new”)
Mastery—personal goal setting and continued task improvement even when not required (“I set high standards for
myself and work toward achieving them”)
Other referenced goals—tendency to compare performance to the performance of others (“Whether I feel good or not
about my performance depends on how it compares to the performance of others”)
Competitiveness—a focus on competition and wanting to do better than co‐workers or peers (“I would rather compete
than cooperate”)
Worry—concerns about having one’s performance evaluated (“Before beginning an important project, I think of the
consequences of failing”)
Emotionality—focus on the emotions of being evaluated in a performance context (“I am able to remain calm and
relaxed before I take a test”)

38. Cross‐CulturalIssuesinMotivation
Erez (1997) notes that across all cultures, managers tend to employ four types of
motivational practices:
1. Differential distribution of rewards—rewarding high performers.
2. Participation in goal setting and decision making—allowing subordinates to
help make decisions.
3. Design and redesign of jobs and organizations—modifying task assignments
and reporting relationships.
4. Quality improvement interventions such as total quality management (TQM)
or quality circles—focusing subordinates on strategic objectives.

39. GenerationalDifferencesandWorkMotivation
Generation X 1961 ─ 1980
Generation Y 1980 ─ 1995 (Millennials)
The work experience of the Gen Xers has influenced their work values and, to a lesser extent, the
values of their Boomer co‐workers. Although the researchers did not examine Generation Y
workers, there is reason to believe that the results would also hold for them. Since the 1980s,
downsizing initiatives have become a way of life. Downsizing sends the message that workers are
disposable and that loyalty to an organization is futile. As world events such as 9/11 remind
individuals of their vulnerability, we may predict that the ties between individuals and work will
become even weaker.

40. MotivationalInterventions
Specific motivational interventions that have been popular in applied settings include:
1. Contingent Rewards
Markham, Scott, and McKee (2002) showed similar effects for public recognition as a
reward for reduced absenteeism. It seems clear that, as a technology for changing
behavior, reinforcement theory can be helpful. Nevertheless, the ultimate explanation of
why long‐term change might have occurred will require a more complex model than
stimulus–response–reinforcement. In addition, even as a technology, behaviorism is most
likely to be effective in developing simple individual behaviors (e.g., improving attendance,
increasing individual sales) rather than complex group behaviors (e.g., team‐based
marketing plan development for a new product).

41. 2. Job Enrichment
Job enrichment, A motivational approach that involves increasing the responsibility and interest level of jobs
in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing those jobs.
Hackman and Oldham (1976) developed a way of actually scoring jobs on their potential to motivate an
individual. This motivation potential (assessed by a questionnaire) is tied to five job characteristics:
Skillvariety Taskidentity Task
significance
Autonomy
The number of
skills required to
perform a task or
job successfully
The extent to which
a task or job is
self‐contained and
can be meaningfully
understood in
relation to other
tasks
The perceived
importance of the
job for the
organization or
society as a whole
The extent to which the
individual worker can
control, schedules,
procedures, and the like
Task
feedback
The extent to which
the individual gets
direct information
from the task itself
about his or her
level of performance

42. 3. ProMES
ProMES is The Productivity Measurement and Enhancement
System; a motivational approach that utilizes goal setting,
rewards, and feedback to increasee motivation and
performance.
The ProMES system involves workers and managers in
making detailed plans for productivity improvement. In other
words, it focuses them on a productivity “act” which will have
a high likelihood of increasing overall unit performance. This
includes forming a task team and having the task team
identify detailed productivity objectives and equally detailed
indicators of success at meeting those objectives.

43. The following conclusions were drawn
from ProMES:
These
effects last
for years.
The effects can be
seen in a wide
range of
organizations and
countries.
ProMES results in
large improvements
in productivity

44. MiND MAPMOTIVATION

45. Thankyou!!For Your Attention