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Motivation
The document discusses various theories of motivation in management. It begins with early models including the traditional, human relations, and human resources models. It then examines content theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McClelland's needs theory. Process theories such as expectancy theory, equity theory, and goal setting theory are analyzed. Reinforcement theory and behavior modification are also covered. Critiques note the complexity of motivation and potential issues with behavior modification.
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Motivation
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- 2. Contents Definition ofMotivation Early Views of Motivation The Traditional Model The Human Relations Model The Human Resource Model Contemporary Theories of Motivation Content Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs ERG Theory McClelland’s Theory of Needs The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation Critiques of the Content Theories Process Theories of Motivation The Expectancy Approach The Equity Approach Goal-Setting Theory Critique of the Process Theories Reinforcement Theory Behavior Modification Critique of Reinforcement Theory
- 3. Definition of Motivation Motivation is the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal. - Stephen P. Robbins Motivation is the factors that cause, channel, and sustain an individual’s behavior. - Stoner & Freeman
- 4. Early Views ofMotivation The early theories of motivation were alike in that they tries to construct a single model of motivation that would apply to every worker in every situation. Three models are presented in early views of motivation The traditional model The human relations model The human resources model
- 5. The Traditional Model This model is associated with Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management. Managers determined the most effective way to perform repetitive tasks and then motivated workers with a system of wage incentives. That is “the more workers produced, the more they earned”. The underlying assumption was that managers understood the work better than workers, who were essentially lazy and could be motivated only by money. However, managers tended to reduce the size of the wage incentive and layoffs became common when workers were needed for specific tasks. At that point, the model began to fail.
- 6. The Human RelationsModel Elton Mayo and other human relations researchers found that the boredom and repetitiveness of many tasks actually reduced motivation, while social contact helped create and sustain motivation. Managers could motivate employees by acknowledging their social needs and by making them feel useful and important. This model urged managers to give employees some freedom to make job related decisions as well as more information about managers’ intentions and organizational goals.
- 7. The Human ResourcesModel Douglas McGregor and other theorists criticized the human relations model as simply a more sophisticated approach to the manipulation of employees. The traditional model and the human relations model oversimplified motivation by focusing on just one factor, such as money and social relations. McGregor identified two different sets of assumptions that managers have about their subordinates. The traditional view, known as Theory X. That holds that work is distasteful to employees who must be motivated by force, money, or praise. Theory Y is more optimistic. It assumes that work is as natural as play or rest, people want to work and under the right circumstances, derives a great deal of satisfaction from work.
- 8. Contemporary Views ofMotivation Contemporary views of motivation focus on a number of factors that may affect motivation. Content theories emphasize the “what” of motivation. That is the content of individual goals and aspirations. Process theories emphasize the “how” of motivation. That is thought processes that go into motivation. Reinforcement theories focus on the ways in which behavior is learned.
- 9. Content theories ofMotivation Content theories of motivation focus on the inner needs that motivate behavior. In an effort to reduce or satisfy their needs, people will act in certain ways. Need (Deprivation) Drive (Tension or drives to fulfill a need) Actions (Goal-directed behavior) Satisfaction (Reduction of the drive and satisfaction of the original need)
- 10. Maslow’s Hierarchy ofNeeds Maslow viewed human motivation as a hierarchy of five needs, ranging from the most basic physiological needs to the highest needs for self-actualization. Self- actualizati on needs Esteem needs Belongingness needs Safety and security needs Physiological needs
- 11. ERG Theory ClaytonAlderfer agreed with Maslow and he broke needs down into just three categories, such as Existence needs, Relatedness needs, and Growth needs. Alderfer stressed that when higher needs are frustrated, lower needs will return, even though they were already satisfied. Self- actualizati on needs Esteem needs Belongingness needs Safety and security needs Physiological needs Existence needs Relatedness needs Growth needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Alderfer’s ERG theory
- 12. McClelland’s Theory ofNeeds It was developed by David McClelland and his associates. The theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation. • The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed Need for achievement • The need to make others behave in away that they would not have behaved otherwise Need for power • The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships Need for affiliation
- 13. The Two FactorTheory of Motivation Herzberg’s theory that work dissatisfaction and satisfaction arise from two different sets of factors. Job dissatisfaction Job satisfaction Influenced by hygiene factors Working conditions Co-worker relations Policies and rules Supervisor quality Salary Influenced by motivator factors Achievement Recognition Responsibility Work itself Advancement Personal growth
- 14. Critiques of theContent Theories These approach seems simple but in practice, motivation is far more complicated. Many managers fail to understand that needs are varying among individuals and change over time. The ways in which needs are translated into behavior also vary widely. Even if needs were consistent, behavior is not. The way people react to need fulfillment or lack of fulfillment varies.
- 15. Process Theories ofMotivation Process theories of motivation that study the thought processes by which people decide how to act. Process theories consider needs as just one element in the process by which individuals decide how to behave. Other elements are the individual’s abilities, his or her role perception, or understanding of what behaviors are needed to achieve high performance, and his or her expectations concerning the results of certain behaviors.
- 16. The Expectancy Approach A model of motivation specifying that the effort to achieve high performance is a function of the perceived likelihood that high performance can be achieved, and will be rewarded if achieved, and that the reward will be worth the effort expended. Effort Performance Rewards
- 17. The Equity Approach A model of motivation specifying that the effort to achieve high performance is a function of the perceived likelihood that high performance can be achieved, and will be rewarded if achieved, and that the reward will be worth the effort expended. Effort Performance Rewards
- 18. Goal-Setting Theory In1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance. According to psychologist Edwin Locke, the natural human inclination to set and strive for goals is useful only if the individual both understands and accepts a particular goal. When goals are specific and challenging, they function more effectively as motivating factors in both individual and group performance. Employees need accurate feedback on their performance to help them to adjust their work methods.
- 19. Critiques of theProcess Theories The major drawback is that they are only really useful after managers have gotten to know their subordinates and their individual personalities, and this takes some time and effort. Employees who have experienced inequity in the past or who have unfulfilled security needs may be slow to trust a manager and reveal what rewards have the most valence for them.
- 20. Reinforcement Theory Anapproach to motivation based on the “law of effect”. The idea that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with negative consequences tends not to be repeated. Stimulus Response Consequences Future Response
- 21. Behavior modification Behaviormodification uses reinforcement theory to change human behavior. A manager who wishes to change employee behavior must change the consequences of that behavior. There are four methods of behavior modification Positive reinforcement: The use of positive consequences to encourage desirable behavior. Avoidance learning: Learning that occurs when individuals change behavior to avoid or escape unpleasant circumstances. Extinction: The absences of reinforcement for undesirable behavior so that the behavior eventfully stops recurring. Punishment: The application of negative consequences to stop or correct improper behavior.
- 22. Critiques of ReinforcementTheory Reinforcement theory may seem too simple. In fact, if we substitute money or its lack for positive or negative consequences, reinforcement theory may sound like the traditional view. To many people, the idea of “behavior modification” is disturbing since it implies that individual behaviors can be predicted form a person’s past experiences and present environment, which seems to challenge deeply held beliefs that human beings freely choose how to act. Behavior modification techniques can be abused to make people behave in unethical ways.