Motivation theories can be categorized as either content theories, which focus on internal factors like needs and emotions, or process theories, which examine how motivation influences behavior. Key content theories include Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and McClelland's acquired needs theory. Important process theories are Vroom's expectancy theory, goal setting theory, and equity theory. These theories provide frameworks to understand what motivates individuals and how their motivation can be influenced.

1. Motivation
ABV-IIITM, Gwalior

2. What is Motivation?
 Involves internal process
(needs, emotions, & cognitions)
– Gives behavior its energy and direction
 Energy – strong, intense, persistent
 Direction – achieve a purpose or goal

3. What is motivation
 It is the process that account for an
individual intensity,direction, and
persistence of effort towards attaining a
goal.

4. Intensity
 Intensity is concerned with how hard a
person tries. This element most of us focus
on when we talk about motivation.

5. direction
 However, high intensity is unlikely to lead
to favorable job-performance outcomes
unless the effort is channeled in a direction
that benefits the organisation.Therefore, we
have to consider the quality of efforts as
well as its intensity.

6. persistence
 Finally , motivation has a persistence
dimension.This is a measure of how long a
person can maintain his or her effort.
Motivated individuals stay with a task long
enough to achieve the goal.

7. Motivating others…
 One approach (more direction & incentives)
– More discipline, longer hours, fixed curriculum, higher
educ. Standards
– External regulation
 Alternative Approach (self- regulation &
satisfaction)
– Support students’ motivation from within
– Achievement and developmental issue

8. A Simple Model Of Motivation
NEED-Creates desire to fulfill
needs (food, friendship,
recognition, achievement).
BEHAVIOR-
Results in actions
to fulfill needs.
FEEDBACK-Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and
should be used again.
REWARDS-Satisfy
needs; intrinsic or
extrinsic rewards.

9. Traditional
Human Relations
Human Resources
Contemporary
•systematic analysis of an employee’s job
•economic rewards for high performance
• noneconomic rewards, such as congenial work
groups
• workers studied as people and the concept of social
man was born
• introduce the concept of the whole person
• employees are complex and motivated by many
factors
• content theories stress the analysis of underlying
human need
• process theories concern the thought processes
that influence behavior
• reinforcement theories focus on employee
learning of desired work behaviors
Foundations of Motivation

10. Foundations Of Motivation
 Traditional - systematic analysis of an
employee’s job, economic rewards for high
performance.
 Human relations – non- economic rewards,
such as congenial work groups, workers
studied as people and the concept of social
man was born.

11. Foundations Of Motivation
 Human resources - introduce the concept of the
whole person, employees are complex and
motivated by many factors.
 Contemporary:
– Content theories stress the analysis of underlying
human need.
– Process theories concern the thought processes, that
influence behavior.
– Reinforcement theories focus on employee learning
of desired work behaviors.

12. Motivation
 The amount of effort that an individual
puts into doing something
 Two types of Motivation
– Intrinsic Motivation
 Behavior performed for its own sake (Motivation
comes from performing the work)
 Example: jobs, being interesting as jobs
– Extrinsic Motivation
 Behavior performed to acquire rewards
(Motivation source is the consequence of an action)
 Example: working just to receive money or
other rewards

13. Motivation Theories
 Two types of motivation theories
– Content theories (focusing on what people want,
what causes them to put effort into work)
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
– Process theories (focusing on how people are
putting forth efforts [what steps])
 Reinforcement Theory
 Goal Setting Theory
 Expectancy Theory
 Equity Theory

14. Initial Observations About
Motivation
 People are motivated to volunteer by a great
variety of reasons.
 What one person loves to do is what
someone else would prefer not doing.
 Many organizations never ask why a person
is volunteering.
 When your motivational needs are cared for,
you will most likely continue to volunteer.

15. Content (Need)Theories of
Motivation
 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
 Herzberg’s two-factor theory
 Alderfer’s ERG theory
 Achievement-Power-Affiliation

16. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Food, water, sex Heat, air, base salary
Safe work,fringe benefits, job security
Recognition, high status,
increased responsibilities
Work groups, clients,coworkers,
supervisors
Opportunities for training,
advancement, growth, and creativity
Freedom from war, pollution,
violence
Family, friends, community
groups
Approval of family, friends,
community
Education, religion,hobbies
personal growth
Self-Actualization
Needs
Fulfillment off the Job Fulfillment on the Job
Need Hierarchy

17. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory
Physiological Needs
most basic human physical needs
Safety Needs
safe and secure physical and emotional environment
Belongingness Needs
desire to be accepted by one’s peers
Esteem Needs
desire for a positive self-image
and to receive attention
Self-Actualization
Needs
represent the need for
self-fulfillment

18. Physiological
Safety
Affiliation
Esteem
Self-Actualization
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Basic
Needs
Higher
Needs

19.  Physiological (basic requirements for survival: air,
food, water, sex drives)
 Safety and Security (Shelter/ Protection from
outside threat [job security])
 Affiliation (affection, friendship, belonging [team
work, company social events)
 Esteem (respect, pos. regard, recognition from
others [praise for performance])
 Self-Actualization (develop one‘s full potential
[meaningful work])
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

20.  Proposed order of needs does not motivate
everyone
 Circumstances can cause an individual to
return to more basic needs level
 More than one need level important at the
same time
 Cultural values can influence ordering and
importance of needs (e.g. collectivism: self-
esteem and self-actualization can be irrelevant)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

21.  Key conclusion
– People differ in what needs they are trying to
satisfy at work
– In a global economy citizens from different
countries have different needs to be satisfied
through work
– As countries develop from lower to higher
standard of living needs are likely to shift (from
basic needs to higher needs)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

22. ERG Theory
Existence Needs
the needs for physical well-being
Relatedness Needs
the need for satisfactory relationships
with others
Growth Needs
human potential,
personal growth, and increased
competence

23. Herzberg’s Dual Factor
Theory
 Two factors: motivators and hygiene's
 Motivators influence satisfaction
– Achievement, recognition, challenging work,
opportunity for growth and advancement.
 Hygiene's influence dissatisfaction
– Called hygiene's because they comprise the
environment surrounding the work.
– Maintaining a hygienic environment does not motivate
employees.
– Working conditions, salary, job security, company
policies, supervision.

24. Herzberg’s Two-Factor
Theory
Area of Satisfaction
Area of Dissatisfaction
Motivators
influence level
of satisfaction.
Hygiene factors
influence level
of dissatisfaction.
Motivators
Hygiene
Factors
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Work itself
Personal growth
Working conditions
Pay and security
Company policies
Supervisors
Interpersonal
relationships

25.  Herzberg: satisfaction and dissatisfaction are
two different dimensions (not opposite ends of
single dimension)
– Satisfaction
 is achieved by motivator factors (Aspects of the work itself
(intrinsic) and how challenging it is)
 Presence of these factors satisfies and motivates workers
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

26. – Dissatisfaction
 is prevented by hygiene factors (Aspects outside the work
itself (extrinsic) influence workers‘ behavior)
 These factors being absent, a worker feels dissatisfied;
being present brings a person (only) to a neutral state
 Which Job factors cause people to feel
satisfaction or experience dissatisfaction?
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

27. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Hygiene Factors
– Company policy and
administration
– Supervision
– Relationship with supervisor
– Work conditions
– Pay
– Relationships with peers
– Security
Motivation Factors
– Achievement
– Recognition
– Interesting work
– Responsibility
– Advancement
– Growth

28.  Helps focus managers‘ attention on
distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation
 Helps to study how to design jobs more
intrinsically motivating
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
Theory

29. McClelland’s Theory of Learned
Needs
 Often referred to as Achievement Theory.
 People strive for achievement, affiliation,
and power. Motivation depends on
whichever need is stronger at the moment.
 In sales, we have found that those with a
high need for achievement devote
significantly more hours per week to their
sales job.

30. – Need for Achievement (establishing/ maintaining high
level of performance)
– Tasks too easy or too difficult do not appeal to them (they
feel less responsibility for outcome)
– Are not concerned about achievement of others (thus not
necessarily making them good managers)
– Need for Power (concern for reputation, influence,
control over others)
 Individuals high on this need prefer leadership positions
and are rated effective leaders by others
 Individuals high on this need are usually good
performers and have above average attendance at work
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

31. – Need for Affiliation (concern for social relationships)
 Individuals prefer cooperative rather than competitive
situations
 Improving the level of need achievement
(among less economically successful countries or
groups) would encourage economic
development (of countries or groups)
 Need for Achievement:individualistic need,
not easy applicable to grouporiented cultures
with lack of support for personal achievement
(Asia, Mexico)
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

32. Theory X and Theory Y
 Developed by Douglas McGregor
 Theory X
– Employees inherently dislike work and ,
whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
– Since employees dislike work,they must be
coereced,controlled, or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
– Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek
formal direction whenever possible.

33. -Most workers place security above all
other factors associated with work and will
display little ambition.

34.  Theory Y
-Emplyees can view work as being as
natural as rest of play.
-people will exercise self-direction and self
control if they are committed to the
objectives.
-the average person can learn to accept,even
seek ,responsibility.

35. -the ability to make innovative decisions is
widely dispersed throughout the population
and is not necessary the sole province of
those in management positions.

36. Acquired Needs Theory
Need for Achievement
desire to accomplish something difficult, master
complex tasks, and surpass others
Need for Affiliation
desire to form close personal
relationships, avoid conflict, and
establish warm friendships
Need for
Power
desire to influence
or control others

37. Answer These Questions to Determine Whether You
Score Highest on Need for Achievement, Need for
Affiliation, or Need for Power
•Do you like situations where you personally must find solutions to problems?
•Do you tend to set moderate goals and take moderate, thought-out risks?
•Do you want specific feedback about how well you are doing?
•Do you spend time considering how to advance your career, how to do your
job better, or how to accomplish something important?
If you answered yes, then you probably have a high need for achievement.
•Do you look for jobs or seek situations that provide an opportunity for social
relationships?
•Do you consider the feelings of others to be very important?
•Do you try to restore disrupted relationships when they occur?
If you answered yes, then you probably have a high need for affiliation.
•Do you try to influence and control others?
•Do you seek leadership positions in a group?
•Do you enjoy persuading others?
•Are you perceived by others as outspoken, forceful, and demanding?
If you answered yes, then you probably have a high need for power.

38.  Identify personal factors or needs related to
motivation
 Personal values differ across and within
cultures
 Theories not universal applicable to all
cultures
Conclusions about Content Theories

39. Process Theories of
Motivation

40.  Focus on (work) process rather than
content (makes them more applicable in
other countries)
– Reinforcement or Learning Theory
– Goal Setting Theory
– (Expectancy Theory)
– Equity Theory
Process Theories

41. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 This is a cognitive theory. It says needs alone can
not explain behavior.
 Contends people are motivated to work toward a
goal when they expect their efforts will pay off.
 It is the “what’s in it for me” theory.
 Three components:
– Expectancy
– Instrumentality
– Valence

42. Expectancy
 Estimate of the probability that expending a given
amount of effort on the task will lead to improved
performance on some specific dimension.
 It is the expected relationship between the amount
of effort put forth and the resulting performance.
– Example: If I increase my calls on potential new
accounts by 10% (effort), then there is a 50% chance
(expectancy) that my volume of new account sales will
increase by 10% during the next six months
(performance).

43. Instrumentality
 Estimate of the probability that an
improvement in performance on some
dimension will lead to a specific increase in
the amount of a particular reward.
 It is the expected relationship between
performance and rewards.

44. Valence
 Perception of the desirability of receiving
increased amounts of a reward (e.g., a
bonus).
 This is the measure of whether the
salesperson cares about the reward you are
offering.

45. Motivation Level =
How will my
effort affect
performance?
How likely is it
that my
performance
will be
rewarded?
How much do I
value an
increase in
this reward?
X X
Expectancy Instrumentality Valence

46. Expectancy Theory
Developed by Victor Vroom and is a very popular
theory of work motivation.
 Vroom suggests that motivation will be high when
workers feel:
– High levels of effort lead to high performance.
– High performance will lead to the attainment of desire
outcomes.
 Consists of three areas:
– Expectancy, Instrumentality, & Valence.

47. Expectancy Theory
High Expectancy
(Worker knows that
if they try, they can
perform)
High
Instrumentality
(Worker perceives that
high performance
leads to outcomes)
High Valence
(Worker/Manager value
the outcomes resulting
from high
performance)
High
Motivation
Figure
12.3

48. Expectancy, Instrumentality, &
Valence
Effort
Expectancy:
Person’s
perception that
their effort will
result in
performance
Instrumentality
perception that
performance
results in
outcomes
Valence:
How desired
are the outcomes
from a
job
Performance Outcomes
Figure
12.2

49. Expectancy, Instrumentality, &
Valence
– Expectancy is the perception that effort (input) will
result in a level of performance.
 You will work hard if it leads to high performance.
– You would be less willing to work hard if you knew that the best
you would get on a paper was a D regardless of how hard you
tried.
– Instrumentality: Performance leads to outcomes.
 Workers are only motivated if they think performance leads to
an outcome.
– Managers should link performance to outcomes.
– Valence: How desirable each outcome is to a person
 Managers should determine the outcomes workers want most.

50. How to achieve high motivation
according to Expectancy Theory
 Results from high levels of Expectancy,
Instrumentality, & Valence (If just one value is
low, motivation will be low)
– Identify desired level of employee motivation
– Provide training/opportunities for employees to
enhance their belief he/she can achieve a task
– Promote employee’s belief that job performance matters
(by rewards etc.)
– As a manager give support to have employee’s
motivation result in high performance

51. Adam’s Equity Theory
 Equity theory is concerned with fairness.
 A worker thinks about justice: “Was the outcome I
got fair given my inputs?”
 Secondly, a worker makes a social comparison,
comparing his/her inputs and outcomes with other
individuals who have a similar job in the same
organization.
 Inputs include effort, experience, educational
background.
 Outcomes include pay, feelings of
accomplishment, status, recognition.

52. Equity Theory
 People want to maintain (distributive) fairness of
work outcomes in proportion to their inputs.
(people want to get what they think they deserve)
 For Workers
– Distributive unfairness may create personal tensions
(they want to avoid)
– Being treated fairly may increase self-esteem
 For Managers
– Distributive fairness might create a trusting
environment within the company
– Distributive fairness might attract superior workers (who
see that high performance is tied to fairly high rewards)

53. Equity Theory
Condition Person Referent Example
Equity
Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Worker contributes
more inputs but also
gets more outputs
than referent
Underpayment
Equity
Outcomes < Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Worker contributes
more inputs but also
gets the same outputs
as referent
Overpayment
Equity
Outcomes > Outcomes
Inputs Inputs
Worker contributes
same inputs but also
gets more outputs
than referent
Figure
12.4

54. Determining Equity
– The outcome/input ratio fo a worker is
compared with another person’s outcome/input
ratio (person is called a referent and perceived as
similar to the worker)
– Equity exists when a person perceives his/ her
outcome/ input ratio to be equal to the referent’s
ratio
– Outcomes are anything people believe they are
getting from a job

55.  Inequity exists when worker’s outcome/input ratio is not
equal to referent.
– Underpayment inequity: ratio is less than the referent. Worker
feels they are not getting the outcomes they should (given
inputs).
– Overpayment inequity: ratio is higher than the referent. Worker
feels they are getting more outcomes then they should (given
inputs)
 Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in workers to
restore equity.
– In underpayment, e.g. workers could reduce input levels, demand
higher outcomes (pay) or rationalize that equity exists
– Overpayment, e.g. workers can change the referent to adjust.
 If inequity persists, worker will often leave the firm.
Equity Theory

56.  Assess employees perception of equity
 Identify employees who perceive inequalities
 Identify basis for perceived inequality
 Determine validity of employee perception
(according to management policies)
 Identify possible changes to address equity
concerns
 Implement changes and communicate them to
employee(s)
How to achieve high motivation
according to Equity Theory

57.  Cultural differences
– Equity norm „competes“ with equality norm
 Equity norm (outcome to input ratio should be relatively
equal for every employee) is prevalent in individualistic
cultures
 Equality norm (each employee gets the same outcome
regardless of inputs) is prevalent in collective cultures,
thereby maintaining interpersonal harmony
 All process theories have to consider cultural
differences when applied to countries other than
USA (were these theories have been developed)
Equity Theory

58.  People learn behavior as a function of its
consequences (rewarding/ ignoring a behavior
increases/ decreases likelihood that a behavior will be
repeated)
– Managers must know what is rewarding to people
they wish to motivate
– Efficient reward systems are different across cultures
(think of a reward system for a Japanese subsidiary in a
western country)
Reinforcement/ Learning Theory

59. – Reinforcing behavior not successfull
 where people don‘t see connection: behavior –
consequences (e.g. Muslims believe what happens is God‘s
will)
 Where rewards are based on relative status (e.g. in
South America everyone associated to a successful
performance receives a reward in relation to his relative
status)
– What people perceive as reward is subject to
cultural influence (e.g. praise, appreciation motivate
individuals in Southern Europe or Asia)
Reinforcement/ Learning Theory

60.  People learn behavior as a function of
other‘s social behavior, they observe
(thoughts, beliefs, values and so forth)
– People are motivated to imitate other
individuals who are highly competent, experts
and receive attractive reinforcers (called
observational learning)
– Poeple learn to control and reward their own
behavior (called self-reinforcement)
– People can be motivated if they believe in their
ability to perform a task successfully (called self-
efficacy)
Reinforcement/ Learning Theory

61. Reinforcement Perspective
on Motivation
Reinforcement Tools
Positive reinforcement in the
administration of a pleasant and
rewarding consequence.
Avoidance learning is the removal of
an unpleasant consequence following
a desired behavior.
Punishment is the imposition of
unpleasant outcomes on an
employee.
Extinction is the withdrawal of a positive
reward; behavior is no longer reinforced and
hence is less likely to occur in the future.

62. Types Of Job Design
Job Simplification
Worker A Worker B Worker C
Job Enlargement
Task
1
Task
2
Task
3
Worker A
Job Rotation
Task
1
Task
2
Task
3
Worker A
Worker C Worker B
Task
1
Task
2
Task
3

63. The Job Characteristics Model

64. Goal Setting Theory
 People are motivated by intentions to work
toward a goal they want to accomplish
– Performance is increased
 When goals are specific (quantitative) rather than vague
 When goals are difficult (but achievable) rather than easy
to achieve
 When feedback is given on one‘s own output
 When workers are committed to the set goals
 When they participate in goal setting (although this is no
prerequsition)
 When self-efficacy (belief in one‘s ability to accomplish a task)
is high

65.  Culture can affect the goal setting process
– In low power distance countries (e.g. Israel)
participation in goal setting is stronger and more
important (people are more committed to goals they
participate in setting)
– In high power distance countries (e.g. USA)
employees commit to supervisor set goals (direct
participaton not necessary)
– In collective countries (e.g. China) self-efficacy is
low (due to relationships as basis to accomplish tasks
contrast to one‘s own belief in one‘s talents)
Goal Setting Theory

66. Keith’s Tip for Motivating
 Praise in public, punish in private
 Praise sincerely and when deserved
 Praise everyone that made a contribution
 Always share the credit
 Accept the blame individually