Menstrual irregularities are the problems with a girl's normal monthly menses. For example, missed periods, have them too frequently, having painful periods, or have excessively heavy flow. Menstrual irregularities can sometimes be a sign of an underlying health problem.
Menstrual cycle irregularities can have many different causes. For some women, use of birth control pills can help regulate menstrual cycles. However, some menstrual irregularities can't be prevented. Regular pelvic exams can help ensure that problems affecting your reproductive organs are diagnosed as soon as possible.
Menstrual cycle irregularities can have many different causes. For some women, use of birth control pills can help regulate menstrual cycles. However, some menstrual irregularities can't be prevented. Regular pelvic exams can help ensure that problems affecting your reproductive organs are diagnosed as soon as possible.
This topic contains definition, incidence, types, causes, diagnosis, mechanism, management of occipito posterior position and deep transverse arrest and manual rotation of occipito posterior position
Please find the power point on Vacuum delivery. I tried to present it on understandable way and all the contents are reviewed by experts and from very reliable references. Thank you
This ppt is made by Mr. arkab khan pathan under guidance of Mrs. RAKHI GOAR. this ppt contain the detail and all the lecture notes of HEG.
THANK YOU.
Arkab khan
This topic contains detail information about all abnormalities during puerperium like puerperial pyrexia, sepsis, subinvolution, breast complications, urinary complications, puerperal venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, obstetric palsies, puerperal emergencies, psychiatric disroders, perinatal management
This topic contains definition, incidence, types, causes, diagnosis, mechanism, management of occipito posterior position and deep transverse arrest and manual rotation of occipito posterior position
Please find the power point on Vacuum delivery. I tried to present it on understandable way and all the contents are reviewed by experts and from very reliable references. Thank you
This ppt is made by Mr. arkab khan pathan under guidance of Mrs. RAKHI GOAR. this ppt contain the detail and all the lecture notes of HEG.
THANK YOU.
Arkab khan
This topic contains detail information about all abnormalities during puerperium like puerperial pyrexia, sepsis, subinvolution, breast complications, urinary complications, puerperal venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, obstetric palsies, puerperal emergencies, psychiatric disroders, perinatal management
in this slide physiological, psychological and social aspects of menopause, Hormonal replacement therapy, surgical menopause , guidance and counselling / role of midwifery nurse practitioner in menopause.
Placenta previa is a condition in which the placenta lies very low in the uterus and covers all or part of the cervix. The cervix is the opening to the uterus that sits at the top of the vagina. Placenta previa happens in about 1 in 200 pregnancies.
Placenta praevia risk factors include a previous delivery, age older than 35 and a history of previous surgeries, such as a caesarean section (C-section) or uterine fibroid removal.
The main symptom is bright red vaginal bleeding without pain during the second-half of pregnancy. The condition can also cause severe bleeding before or during delivery.
Limited physical activity is recommended. A C-section is often required in severe cases.
Bivalve speculum (Cusco's speculum) The two-bladed, or bivalve, speculum is the most common type of instrument gynecologists use to examine the vagina and cervix. ...
Pediatric speculum. ...
Huffman speculum. ...
Pederson speculum. ...
Graves speculum.
Uterine prolapse occurs when weakened or damaged muscles and connective tissues such as ligaments allow the uterus to drop into the vagina. Common causes include pregnancy, childbirth, hormonal changes after menopause, obesity, severe coughing and straining on the toilet.
Hydatidiform Mole (HM) is a rare mass or growth that forms inside the uterus at the beginning of a pregnancy. It is a type of gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD).
When a normal sperm cell fertilizes one of these oocytes, the resulting embryo has only one set of chromosomes. Because the embryo has no genes from the mother, the pregnancy cannot develop normally, resulting in a hydatidiform mole.
Infection prevention and control (IPC) is a practical, evidence-based approach which prevents health workers and patients from being harmed by avoidable infection and as a result of antimicrobial resistance.
A biophysical profile is a prenatal test which is used to check on a baby's well-being. The test combines the fetal heart rate monitoring (NST- Non Stress Test) and fetal ultrasound to evaluate a Fetal heart rate, movements, breathing, muscle tone and amniotic fluid level.
Counseling: Parental, Breavement, Family Planning, Infertility.Sandhya Kumari
Family planning counselling is the process whereby the counselor helps clients and people to make informed and voluntary choices about the number of children and the spacing of the children within their family. ... Method-specific counselling is provided once a person has chosen a specific family planning method.
An intrauterine device, also known as intrauterine contraceptive device or coil, is a small, often T-shaped birth control device that is inserted into the uterus to prevent pregnancy. IUDs are one form of long-acting reversible birth control.
Dinoprostone is a naturally occurring prostaglandin. It has important effect in labour. Also it stimulates osteoblasts to release factors which stimulates bone. As a prescription, it is used as a vaginal suppository, to prepare the cervix for labour and to induce labour.
TORCH syndrome is a group of symptoms caused by Toxoplasmosis, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes simplex, and other organisms including syphilis, Varicella zoster, and parvovirus.
Dilatation and curettage (D & C) is a procedure to remove tissue from inside the uterus. Doctors perform D & C to diagnose and treat certain uterine conditions — such as a heavy bleeding — or to clear the uterine lining after an abortion or miscarriage.
Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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Adv. biopharm. APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMSAkankshaAshtankar
MIP 201T & MPH 202T
ADVANCED BIOPHARMACEUTICS & PHARMACOKINETICS : UNIT 5
APPLICATION OF PHARMACOKINETICS : TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS By - AKANKSHA ASHTANKAR
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
2. INTRODUCTION
Menstruation is the visible
manifestation of cyclic physiologic
uterine bleeding due to shedding of
the endometrium following invisible
interplay of hormones mainly through
hypothalamo- pituitary- ovarian axis.
3. MENSTRUATION
The development and maturation of a follicle,
ovulation and formation of corpus luteum and its
degeneration constitute an ovarian cycle. All these
events occur within 4 weeks.
The ovarian cycle consists of:
Recruitment of groups of follicles.
Selection of dominant follicle and its menstruation.
Ovulation
Corpus luteum formation
Demise of corpus luteum.
4. MENSTRUAL IRREGULARITIES
Menstrual irregularities are common
abnormalities of a woman’s
menstrual cycle. Menstrual
irregularities include a variety of
conditions in which menstruation is
irregular, heavy, painful, or does not
occur at all.
6. AMENORRHOEA
Amenorrhoea means absence of
menstruation. It is not a symptom and
not a disease.
5 basic factors involved in the onset and
continuation of normal menstruation.
These are:
1. Normal female chromosomal
pattern(46XX).
2. Co- ordinate hypothalamo-pituitary
ovarian axis.
3. Anatomical presence and patency of the
outflow tract.
4. Responsive endometrium.
5. Active support of thyroid and adrenal
8. PRIMARY AMENORRHOEA
A young girl who has not yet
menstruated by her 16 years of age
is giving primary amenorrhoea
rather than delayed menarche. The
normal upper age limit for
menarche is 15 years.
16. This test is performed by administering inj.
Progesterone in oil 75 mg IM or tab
Medroxyprogesterone 10 mg daily or
micronized progesterone 200mg daily for 10
days. Withdrawl bleeding usually occurs
within 10 days, if the test is positive.
17. MANAGEMENT OF PRIMARY
AMENORRHOA
In primary amenorrhea:
correct the underlying cause
estrogen replacement therapy
if pituitary tumor: treatment with surgical
resection, radiation and drug therapy
surgery to correct abnormalities of genital
tract
18. SECONDRY AMENORRHOEA
Secondary amenorrhea: is the absence of menses for 3 cycles
or 6 months in women who have previously menstruated
regularly.
Causes:
Breast feeding
Emotional stress
Mal nutrition, tuberculosis
Pregnancy
PCOS Premature ovarian failure
Pituitary, ovarian, or adrenal tumour
Depression
Hyper thyroid or hypothyroid
Diabetes
Hyper prolactinemia
Rapid wt gain or loss related to amenorrhoea
19. Kallmann syndrome
post pill amenorrhoea
Chemotherapy or radiotherapy
Aneroxia nervosa
Hypothalamic dysfunction- stress, exercise, rapid wt.
gain or loss.
Vigorous excrete
Kidney failure
Tranquilizers or antidepressant , anti hypertensives
Post partum pituitary necrosis
Early menopause
20. Detailed history:
Mode of onset- whether sudden or gradual preceded by
hypomenorrhoea or oligomenorrhoea.
Sudden changes in envt., emotional, stress,
psychogenic shock, eating disorders etc
Sudden loss or gain weight
Intake of psychotrophic or anti hypertensive drugs .
Intake of oral pills or its recent withdrawl. h/o recent
chemo or radiotherapy
21. Appearance of abnormal manifestations either by coinciding
or preceeding the amenorrhoea.
Acne, hirsutism or change in voice.
Inappropriate lactation galactorrhoea.( abnormal secretion
of milk unrelated to pregnancy and lactation.
Headache and visual disturbances.
Hot flushes and vaginal dryness
Obstetric history- overzealous curettage leading to
synechiae.
Cessarrian section may be extended to hysterectomy of
which the patient may be unaware.
Severe PPH, shock, infection.
Postpartum or postabortal uterine curettage
Prolonged lactation
Medical history of TB., Diabetes, chronic nephritis,
hypothyroid.
22. General examination:
Nutritional status
Extreme emaciation or marked obesity
Presence of acne, hirsutism
Discharge of milk from breasts
Abdominal examination
Presence of striae associated with obesity may be
related to Cushing syndrome.
A mass in lower abdomen.
Pelvic examination
Enlargement of clitoris.
Adnexal mass suggestive of tubercular tuboovarian
mass or ovarian tumour.
23. Tests that can be done are:
Progesterone challenging test
Oestrogen- progesterone challenge test
Serum gonadotrophins
Gn RH dynamic test.
CT
MRI
X-RAY
24. MANAGEMENT FOR SECONDARY AMMENORRHOEA
1. NO ABNORMALITY DETECTED
If patient is not anxious, no treatment is required.
Provide assurance.
If she is anxious provide oral contraceptive pills to be
continued for atleast 3 cycles.
With low endogenous oestrogen : ethinyl oestradiol 0.02
mg or conjugated equine oestragen 1.25 mg daily is to
be taken for 25 days. Medroxyprogesterone acetate 10
mg daily is added from day 16-25.
The patient is anxious for fertility.
Husbands semen analysis in primary infertility and the
tubal factor of the women are to be evaluated prior to
25. 2. CASES WITH DETECTABLE CAUSE
Anxiety and stress- may be corrected by reassurance,
psychotherapy.
Improve health status
26. 3. POLYCYSTIC OVARIAN SYNDROME (PCOS)
First correct the biochemical parameters such
as :
Hyperandrogenemia
Hyperprolactenemia
Hyperinsulinemia
Insulin resistance
High serum oestradiol
Low FSH
Low serum progesterone androgenic follicular
microenvironment
Weight reduction
27. If fertility not desired
Management of hyperandrogenemia
Combined oral contraceptive pills
Antiandrogens such as cyproterone acetate, flutamide
may be given.
Metformin may be given as an oral insulin sensitizing
agent.
Endometrial biopsy can be done in case of
endometrial hyperplasia.
Cabergolin, bromocriptine in case of
hyperprolactenemia (if failed surgery can be done as –
transnasal-transsphenoidal adenectomy is done.
If premature ovarian failure- HRT can be given )
Thyroxine ---- of hypothyroid state.
29. PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME (PMS)
(Premenstrual tension)
Premenstrual syndrome is a psychoneuroendocrine
disorder of unknown etiology that occurs just prior to
menstruation.
There is a cyclic appearance of several symptoms
during the last 7-10 days of the onset of menstrual cycle
which subside the onset of menstrual flow. At least 5 of
the symptoms must have been present in most of the
cycles over the past one year.
When these symptoms disrupt daily functioning
they are grouped under premenstrual dysmorphic
30. Clinical manifestation of PMS
Depressed mood, hopelessness,
and self depreciation.
Anxiety, tension, fearfulness.
Affective liability- mood swings
Anger, irritability, interpersonal
conflict.
Decreased energy.
Appetite changes or cravings.
Changes in sleep.
Feeling overwhelmed or out of
control.
Physical symptoms such as breast
tenderness, headache.
Dyspareunia, bloating.
Weight gain.
31. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
The exact cause is not known but the following
hypothesis is considered.
Alteration in the level or ratio of oestrogen and
progesterone from the mid luteal phase.
Neuroendocrine factors:
Decreased synthesis in the luteal phase.
Withdrawl of endorphins from CNS during luteal
phase.
Psychological and psychogenic factors affecting
behavior.
32. TREATMENT
General
Elimination of caffeine from the diet.
Avoidance of smoking, alcohol.
Regular exercise.
Regular meals and nutritious diet.
Adequate sleep.
Relaxation techniques like yoga, stress management
and assurance.
Alternative & complementary therapy.
33. Non hormonal
Tranquilizers or antidepressant drugs
Pyridoxine
Diuretics in the second half of the cycle.
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine.
Hormones
Oral contraceptives pills to maintain a uniform
hormonal melieu.
Progestogen.
Bromocriptine to relieve breast symptoms.
Gn RH agonists to suppress gonadal steroids.
34. NURSING MANAGEMENT
Encourage patient to set
goals for the reduction of
symptoms such as mood
swings, crying, binge eating,
and day to day stressors.
Teach positive coping
measures, involve and
encourage family members
such as spouse or children
for assistance and care.
Encourage use of exercise,
meditation and creative
activities to reduce stress.
Provide instructions about
the desired effects of
35. DYSMENORRHOEA
Dysmenorrhoea : painful
menses or cramping during
menstruation of sufficient
magnitude so as to
incapacitate day to day
activities.
Typically dysmenorrhoea
begins upto 48 hours before
the onset of menses and
resolves within 2 to 4 days of
onset or by the end of
37. PRIMARY DYSMENORRHOEA (
spasmodic)
It is painful menses with a uterine cause,
but without pelvic pathology and usually
occurs within 1-3 years of menarche.
Cause:
Painful uterine contractions stimulated by
prostaglandin produced by the
endometrium during menses are most often
identified as the cause for primary
38. Others may be like-
Mostly confined to adolescents.
Almost always confined to ovulatory cycles.
The pain is usually cured following pregnancy and
vaginal delivery.
The pain is related to dysrhythemic uterine
contractions and uterine hypoxia.
Psychogenic factors- of tension, anxiety lowers the
pain threshold.
Abnormal anatomical and functional aspect of
myometrium like Uterine myometrial hyperactivity.
Imbalance in the autonomic nervous control of uterine
muscle.
Role of prostaglandins.
Role of vasopressin
39. Symptoms:
Sharp, intermittent suprapubic pain radiating
to the back or thigh.
Headache, fatigue, backache, flushing,
dizziness and syncope.
Adolescents typically experience the
problem only after menstrual cycles become
ovulatory.
Women often experience reduction in
dysmenorrhoea after pregnancy.
40. THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS
Nonsteriodal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAID) started
1-3 days prior to the onset of menstrual flow (to
decrease prostaglandin production).
Oral contraceptives, to decrease endometrial
proliferation and therefore production of prostaglandin.
Surgery:
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS)
Laproscopic uterine nerve ablation(LUNA).
Dilatation of cervical canal.
Presacral neurotomy (LPSN).
41. SECONDARY DYSMENORRHOA (congestive)
Secondary dysmenorrhoea is painful menses resulting from a
pathologic process.
Cause:
pressure from outside the uterus
tissue ischemia
cervical stenosis
congenital abnormality (imperfotate hymen)
endometriosis
ovarian cysts
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
uterine fibroid tumous.
IUCD in utero and pelvic congestion.
Obstruction due to mullerian malformation.
42. clinical features:
The pain is dull, situated in the back and in front
without any radiation.
It usually appears 3-5 days prior to the period and
relieves with the start of bleeding.
The onset and duration depends on the pathology
producing the pain.
There is no systemic discomfort unlike primary
dysmenorrhoea.
Other symptoms may be breast tenderness and
change in bowel habits.
43. diagnostic evaluation:
Laproscopy
Hysteroscopy/laparotomy
TREATMENT
The treatment aims at the cause rather than the
symptom. The type of treatment depends on the
severity, age and parity of the patient.
44. OVARIAN DYSMENORRHOEA
(RIGHT OVARIAN VEIN SYNDROME)
Right ovarian vein crosses the ureter at
right angle. During premenstrual period,
due to pelvic congestion or increased
blood flow, there may be marked
engorgement in the vein –pressure on
ureter- stasis- infection- pyelonephritis-
pain.
45. MITTELSCHMERZ’S SYNDROME
(ovular pain)
Ovular pain is not an infrequent complaint. It appears in
the midmenstrual period. The pain usually situated in the
hypogastruism or in either iliac fossa.
The pain is usually located at one side and does not
change from from side to side according to which ovary
is ovulating.
Nausea or vomiting is conspicuously absent.
It rarely last for 12 hours.
It may be associated with slight vaginal bleeding or
excessive mucoid vaginal discharge.
46. Cause:
The exact cause is
unknown. Other
factors may include:
Increased tension of
graffian follicle just
prior to rupture
Peritoneal irritation by
the follicular fluid
following ovulation
Contraction of the
tubes and uterus.
Treatment:
Provide assurance
analgesics
in obstetrics cases,
the cure is absolute
by making the cycle
anovular with
contraceptive pills.
47. PELVIC CONGESTION SYNDROME
There is disturbance in the autonomic nervous
system which may lead to gross vascular
congestion with pelvic varicosities. The patient
may be congestive type of dysmenorrhoea
without any demonstrable pelvic pathology.
Symptoms:
Backache
Pelvic pain on long standing, dyspareunia
Menorrhagia or epimenorrhoea
Uterus may be bulky and boggy.
48. Diagnosis:
Pelvic venography
Doppler scan
CT/ MRI
Angiography
Treatment:
The treatment is unsatisfactory.
Medroxy progesterone acetate (MPA) 50 mg daily for 4
months was found effective. In parous women with
advancing age, hysterectomy may relieve the symptoms.
50. MENORRHAGIA
Menorrhagia is defined as the
cyclic bleeding at normal intervals;
the bleeding is either excessive in
amount (> 80ml) or duration (>7
days) or both. The term menotaxis
is often used to denote prolonged
bleeding.
CAUSES:
Menorrhagia is a symptom of
some underlying pathology-
51. Cause:
Organic:
Pelvic:
Fibroid uterus
Adenomosis
Pelvic endometriosis
IUCD in utero
Chronic tubo- ovarian mass
Tubercular endometriotis (early cases)
Retroverted uterus – due to congestion
Granulose cell tumour of the ovary.
53. functional
Due to disturbed hypothalamo- pituitary-
ovarian- endometrial axis.
C. Common causes:
Dysfunctional uterine bleeding
Fibroid uterus
Adenomycosis
Chronic tubo- ovarian mass
54. DIAGNOSIS:
Long duration of
flow.
Passage of big
clots
Use of increased
number of thick
sanitary pads
Pallor and low
level of
hemoglobin
TREATMENT:
The definitive
treatment is
appropriate to the
cause for
menorrhagia.
55. POLYMENORRHOEA
(epimenorrhoea)
Polymenorrhoea is defined as cyclic
bleeding where the cycle is reduced to
an arbitrary limit of less than 21 days
and remains constant at that frequency.
If the frequent cycle is associated with
excessive and or prolonged bleeding, it
is called epimenorrhoea.
56. Causes:
Dysfunctional uterine.
It is seen predominantly during adolescence,
preceding menopause and following delivery
and abortion. Hyperstimulation of the ovary by
the pituitary hormones may be a responsible
factor.
Ovarian hyperemia- as in PID or ovarian
endometritis.
Treatment:
Persistent dysfunctional type is treated by
hormone as in dysfunctional uterine bleeding.
57. METRORRHAGIA
Metorrhagia is defined as irregular acyclic bleeding
from the uterus.
Amount of bleeding is variable. While metorrhagia
strictly concerns uterine bleeding but in clinical
practice, the bleeding from any part of the genital tract
is included under the healing.
The irregular bleeding in the form of contact bleeding
or intermittent bleeding is an otherwise normal cycle is
also indicated in metorrhagia.
Menometorrgia:
Is the term applied when the bleeding is so irregular
and excessive that the menses cannot be identified at
all.
58. Causes of acyclic bleeding:
DUB- usually during adolescence following childbirth
and abortion and preceding menopause.
Submucosal fibroid
Uterine polyp
Carcinoma cervix and endometrial carcinoma.
Causes of contact bleeding:
Ca cervix
Mucous polyp of cervix
Vascular ectopy of the cervix specially during
pregnancy, pill use cervix.
Infections- chlamydial or tubercular cervicitis.
Cervical endometritis.
59. Causes of intermenstrual bleeding
contact bleeding
Urethral carnucle
Ovular bleeding
Breakthrough bleeding in pill use
IUCD in utero
Decubitis ulcer
Treatment:
Treatment is directed to the underlying pathology.
Malignancy is to be excluded prior to any
definitive treatment.
60. OLIGOMENORRHOEA
Menstrual bleeding occurring more than 35 days apart
and which remains constant at that frequency is called
oligomenorrhoea.
Causes:
Age related- during adolescence and preceding
menopause.
Weight related- obesity
Stress and exercise related
Endocrine disorders- PCOS
Androgen producing tumours- ovarion, adrenal
Tubercular endometritis
61. HYPOMENORRHOEA
When the menstrual bleeding is unduly
scanty and lasts for less than 2 days, it is
called hypomenorrhoea.
Causes:
Local ( uterine synchiae or endometrial
tuberculosis)
Endocrinal ( use of oral contraceptives,
thyroid dysfunction and premenopausal
periods)
62. DYSFUNCTIONAL UTERINE BLEEDING (DUB)
DUB is defined as a state of abnormal uterine bleeding
without any clinically detectable organic, systemic and
iatrogenic cause. (pelvic pathology eg- tumour,
inflammation or pregnancy is excluded.)
Currently DUB is defined as a state of abnormal uterine
bleeding following anovulation due to dysfunction of
hypothalamo- pituitary- ovarian axis.(endocrine origin).
Heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB) is defined as a
bleeding that interferes with woman’s physical, emotional,
social and maternal quality of life.
63. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
The physiological mechanism of haemostasis in normal
menstruation are:
Platelet adhesion formation
Formation of platelet plug with fibrin to seal the bleeding vessels.
Locasied vaso constriction.
Regeneration of vaso constriction.
Regeneration of endometrium.
Biochemical mechanisms involved are: inc. endometrial ratio of
PGF2 alpha/ PGE2.
PGF2alpha causes vasoconstriction and reduces bleeding.
Progesterone increases the level of PGF2 alpha from
arachidonic acid.
Levels of endothelin which is a powerful vasoconstrictor is also
increased.
In anovulatory DUB there is decreased synthesis of PGF2 alpha
and the ratio of PGF2 alpha/ PGE2 is low.
64. The abnormal bleeding may be associated with
or without ovulation and accordingly gouped
into:
. Ovular bleeding
Anovular bleeding
Ovular bleeding includes:
Polymenorrhoea/ polymenorrhagia
Oligomenorrhoea
Functional menorrhagia
Anoovular bleeding includes:
Menorrhagia
Cystic glandular hyperplasia.
68. MEDICAL MANAGEMENT
HORMONES:
With the introduction of hormones , potent oral active
progestins, they became the mainstay in the
management of DUB in all age groups and practically
replaced the isolated use of oestrogens and
androgens. Eg medroxyprogesterone acetate,
norethisterone acetate etc.
Progestins : involves prostaglandin synthetase
inhibitors (PSI) eg; fenamates ( mefenamic acid)
The preparation are used:
Cyclic therapy
Continuous therapy.
69. To stop bleeding and regulate the cycle:
Norethisterone preparations (5mg tab ) are used thrice
daily till bleeding stops which it usually does by 3-7 days.
a. cyclic therapy:
5th- 25th day course:
In ovular bleeding----- any low dose combined oral pills
are effective when given from 5-25th day of cycle for 3
consecutive cycles. It causes endometrial atrophy.normal
menstruation is expected to resume with restoration of
normally functioning pituitary ovarian endometrial axis.
In anovular bleeding--- cyclic progesterone preparation
medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA)10 MG r
norethisterone 5mg is used from 5th- 25th day of cycle for
3 cycles.
70. 15-25th day course:
In ovular bleeding where patient wants pregnancy or
in cases of irregular shedding or irregular ripening of
the endometrium.dydrogesterone 1 tab (10 mg) daily
bd from 15-25th day may cure the state. It does not
suppress the ovulation.
Anovulatory women have immaturity of H-P-O axis.
They are ideal for the use of short term cyclic therapy
until the maturity of the positive feedback system is
established.
71. b. Continuous progestins:
Medroxyprogesterone acetate 10 mg tds daily is
given and treatment is usually continued for
atleast 90 days. Inj DMPA i/m can be given
Oestrogen
Intrauterine progestogen
Danazol
Mifepristone (RU 486)
GnRH agonists
74. CONCLUSION
Some menstrual irregularities can be caused by
serious, even life-threatening conditions, such as
uterine cancer. Seek prompt medical care if you
have menstrual irregularities, such as heavy
menstrual periods or a lack of menstrual periods.
Early diagnosis and treatment of menstrual
irregularities reduces the risk of serious
complications, such as infertility and metastatic
uterine cancer.