Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can be single-celled or multicellular. Their cell walls contain chitin and glucans. Fungi can cause superficial infections of the skin and nails, subcutaneous infections beneath the skin, and systemic infections of internal organs. Common fungal diseases include ringworm, athlete's foot, histoplasmosis, and coccidiomycosis. Fungi are classified based on their modes of reproduction and microscopic structures. Identification and diagnosis involves microscopic examination, culturing, and serological tests.
Introduction to Mycology 2020 (2).pptxDawn Junkere
shows the different fungal infections human can be exposed to. how medical treatment can be carried out to treat
use of antofungals. the different parts of the fungus
Introduction to Microbiology And Common Micro-Organisms, EpidemiologyMonika P. Maske
Introduction to Microbiology, Classification Of Micro-Organisms, Bacteria , Classification of Bacteria Depend on Shape and Characteristic Arrangement, Algae,Fungi, Moulds And Yeasts, Spores, Viruses, Protozoa, Rickettsia & Mycoplasma, Identification of Bacteria, Scope of Microbiology, Introduction to Epidemiology, Applications of Epidemiology,Definitions.
1_Introduction to Biostatistics-2 (2).pdfelphaswalela
Example: For a sample pediatric case, refer to case 7: Toddler with a cough and fever.
Chief concern and history of present illness.
Past history.
Prenatal and birth history.
Developmental history.
Feeding or nutrition history.
Family history.
Social history.
Introduction to Mycology 2020 (2).pptxDawn Junkere
shows the different fungal infections human can be exposed to. how medical treatment can be carried out to treat
use of antofungals. the different parts of the fungus
Introduction to Microbiology And Common Micro-Organisms, EpidemiologyMonika P. Maske
Introduction to Microbiology, Classification Of Micro-Organisms, Bacteria , Classification of Bacteria Depend on Shape and Characteristic Arrangement, Algae,Fungi, Moulds And Yeasts, Spores, Viruses, Protozoa, Rickettsia & Mycoplasma, Identification of Bacteria, Scope of Microbiology, Introduction to Epidemiology, Applications of Epidemiology,Definitions.
1_Introduction to Biostatistics-2 (2).pdfelphaswalela
Example: For a sample pediatric case, refer to case 7: Toddler with a cough and fever.
Chief concern and history of present illness.
Past history.
Prenatal and birth history.
Developmental history.
Feeding or nutrition history.
Family history.
Social history.
Epidemiology
Table of Contents
UNIT ONE: Introduction to Epidemiology..........
Objectives...................................................
Definition....................................................
v
• Introduction............................................................ Acknowledgement.................................................
• UNIT ONE: Introduction to Epidemiology..........
o Objectives...................................................
Definition....................................................
History of Epidemiology..............................
Purpose/Use of Epidemiology....................
o Exercise......................................................
• UNIT TWO: Disease Causation............................
o Objective....................................................
o Definition....................................................
o Causes of disease......................................
o Exercise....................................................
• UNIT THREE: Levels of prevention...................
o Objectives.................................................
o Natural history of disease.........................
o Measurements of morbidity......................
o Measurements of Mortality.......................
o Exercise:...................................................
o data collection......................................... UNIT SEVEN: Sources of Data and methods of
o Objectives:................................................
o Sources of data........................................
o Exercise:...................................................
Management........................................... UNIT EIGHT: Epidemic Investigation and
Objectives................................................
o Levels of Disease Occurrence..................
o Types of epidemics...................................
o Investigation of an Epidemic.....................
o Exercise....................................................
• UNIT NINE: Epidemiological Surveillance........
o Objectives.................................................
• Definition..................................................
• Purpose of surveillance............................
• Types of surveillance................................
• Activities in Surveillance...........................
• Features of a good surveillance system....
• The integrated disease surveillance system
• Exercise....................................................
• Reference................................................
Introduction to Epidemiology
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this unit the student is expected to:
Define Epidemiology Identify the main issues in the definition Discuss the uses of Epidemiology
1. Definition
Epidemiology is the study of the frequency, distribution and determinants of diseases and other health related conditions in human populations, and the application of this study to the promotion of health, and to the prevention
UROTRANSMITTERS-NEUROMODULATORS
More than 50 chemical substances
1.Small molecules with rapid effects
Stored in axonal vesicules
Effect on postsynaptic membrane approx. 1 ms, -opening of ion channels,
Brief inactivation, recycled, fromed in the body of neurons
Class I. ACH
Class II. Amines : NA, A, Dopamin, serotonin, histamin
Class III. Aminoacids: GABA, Glycin, Glutamate, Aspartate
Class IV. NO
2. NEUROPEPTIDES,prolonged effects, are integral part of protein molecules
In neuronal bodies, are fromed in the bodies and compose the vesicules inside of them,
then they are brought to the axonal terminals with longlasting effect (hours -days)
Modulates the expression of genes
A.Hypothalamic releasing hormones
B.Pituitary peptides: beta-endorfin, MSH, Prolactin, GH, vasopresin, oxytocin,
ACTH, LH, TSH
C. Peptides operating in GIT and brain:Leucin, enkefalin, methionin
substance P, gastrin, cholecystokinin, VIP, neurotensin, insulin, glucagon
D. From other tissues: angiotensin II, Bradykinin, Carnosin, calcitonin, sleep peptides Peptides operating in GIT and brain:Leucin, enkefalin, methionin
substance P, gastrin, cholecystokinin, VIP, neurotensin, insulin, glucagon
D. From other tissues: angiotensin II, Bradykinin, Carnosin, calcitonin, sleep peptides you are operating in GIT and brain:Leucin, enkefalin, methionin
substance P, gastrin, cholecystokinin, VIP, neurotensin, insulin, glucagon
D. From other tissues: angiotensin II, Bradykinin, Carnosin, calcitonin, sleep peptides you
Open sidebar
Reproductive Physiology Overview
User
Reproductive system physiology
ChatGPT
The reproductive system is responsible for the production and development of offspring. It includes various organs and structures that differ between males and females. In this response, I will provide an overview of the reproductive system physiology for both males and females.
Male Reproductive System Physiology:
Testes: The testes are the primary male reproductive organs. They produce sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis and secrete the hormone testosterone.
Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the surface of each testis. It serves as a site for sperm maturation and storage.
Vas Deferens: The vas deferens is a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.
Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, and Bulbourethral Glands: These accessory glands produce seminal fluid, which nourishes and protects the sperm. The seminal fluid is combined with sperm to form semen.
Urethra: The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder and also serves as a passage for semen during ejaculation.
Female Reproductive System Physiology:
Ovaries: The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs. They produce ova (eggs) through a process called oogenesis and secrete hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
Fallopian Tubes: The fallopian tubes are ducts that connect the ovaries to the uterus. They serve as the site for fertilization, where the sperm meets and fertilizes the egg.
Uterus: The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus. It undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle in preparation for pregnancy.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It contains a small opening called the os, which allows the passage of menstrual blood and sperm.
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular canal that connects the cervix to the external genitalia. It serves as the birth canal during childbirth and also receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
Mammary Glands: While not directly part of the reproductive system, the mammary glands in the breasts produce milk for nourishing newborns after childbirth.
Hormonal Regulation:
The reproductive system is regulated by hormones that coordinate and control its functions. In males, the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the production of testosterone in the testes, while FSH promotes sperm production.
In females, the hypothalamus releases GnRH, which triggers the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and the production of estrogen. LH causes ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which produces pro
Open sidebar
Reproductive Physiology Overview
User
Reproductive system physiology
ChatGPT
The reproductive system is responsible for the production and development of offspring. It includes various organs and structures that differ between males and females. In this response, I will provide an overview of the reproductive system physiology for both males and females.
Male Reproductive System Physiology:
Testes: The testes are the primary male reproductive organs. They produce sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis and secrete the hormone testosterone.
Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube located on the surface of each testis. It serves as a site for sperm maturation and storage.
Vas Deferens: The vas deferens is a muscular tube that transports mature sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.
Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, and Bulbourethral Glands: These accessory glands produce seminal fluid, which nourishes and protects the sperm. The seminal fluid is combined with sperm to form semen.
Urethra: The urethra is a tube that carries urine from the bladder and also serves as a passage for semen during ejaculation.
Female Reproductive System Physiology:
Ovaries: The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs. They produce ova (eggs) through a process called oogenesis and secrete hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
Fallopian Tubes: The fallopian tubes are ducts that connect the ovaries to the uterus. They serve as the site for fertilization, where the sperm meets and fertilizes the egg.
Uterus: The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops into a fetus. It undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle in preparation for pregnancy.
Cervix: The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina. It contains a small opening called the os, which allows the passage of menstrual blood and sperm.
Vagina: The vagina is a muscular canal that connects the cervix to the external genitalia. It serves as the birth canal during childbirth and also receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
Mammary Glands: While not directly part of the reproductive system, the mammary glands in the breasts produce milk for nourishing newborns after childbirth.
Hormonal Regulation:
The reproductive system is regulated by hormones that coordinate and control its functions. In males, the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). LH stimulates the production of testosterone in the testes, while FSH promotes sperm production.
In females, the hypothalamus releases GnRH, which triggers the release of LH and FSH from the pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and the production of estrogen. LH causes ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum, which produces pro
TOPIC 2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR.pptxelphaswalela
KHAN UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
IRD 1O3: DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS AND ITS APPLICATION
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Conceptualization of Development
Economic, Social, Political and Environmental Conceptions and indicators of Development
2. Theories of Development:
Rostow, Smith, Marx
3. Characteristics of transitional Societies
Low incomes, Dual Economies, Poverty, Population Growth, Scarce Strategic Natural Resources, Demonstration Effects and Unemployment.
4. Africa’s Development Objectives
Alleviation of Mass Poverty, Self-sustaining Growth and Development, Regional Integration and Collective Self-reliance.
5. Sectorial Development
Agricultural and Rural Development, Industry and Informal Sector, Tourism, Infrastructural Development- water, institutions such as schools, colleges e.t.c. for manpower development; roads, airways, telecom, railways, shipment.
6. Organization Strategies for Development
Top down Planning and Bottom up planning
7. Definition of Foreign Aid
· Why countries accept foreign aid
· Why donors give foreign aid
8. Structural Reforms and their impact on Development
The rationale of Structural Reforms, Impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes in specific sectors (e.g. education, Health, Agriculture)
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
By the end of the lesson the student should be able to:
1. Have an understanding of the economic aspects of development process.
2. Appreciate development problems experienced by the Less Industrialized Countries.
3. Suggest solutions to these problems.
DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
Historically the word development in its present context is of a very recent origin. It was used in the covenant of League of Nations and much later by the charter of the United Nations. The concept of development acquired more significance after the Second World War in 1945, partly as a requirement to help reconstruct the countries, which had been ruined by the two world wars, and later extended towards development of countries emerging from colonial rule.
From the general Literature of development and from the descriptions of development projects one may deduce that development represents a process through which relatively simple traditional, agrarian societies become industrialized and therefore modernized. This philosophy, characterized planning and development, was thought in most developing nations in the 1950s and 1960s.
In the 1950s and 1960s development tended to be looked at in strictly economic terms. Economic growth was considered synonymous with economic development, and thus the total development of a society. While economic growth is an essential component of a country’s development process, it is not sufficient. During this period, also referred to as the first development, meant the capacity of a national economy, whose initial economic condition has been more or less static for a long time, to generate and sustain an annual i
KHAN UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
IRD 1O3: DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS AND ITS APPLICATION
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Conceptualization of Development
Economic, Social, Political and Environmental Conceptions and indicators of Development
2. Theories of Development:
Rostow, Smith, Marx
3. Characteristics of transitional Societies
Low incomes, Dual Economies, Poverty, Population Growth, Scarce Strategic Natural Resources, Demonstration Effects and Unemployment.
4. Africa’s Development Objectives
Alleviation of Mass Poverty, Self-sustaining Growth and Development, Regional Integration and Collective Self-reliance.
5. Sectorial Development
Agricultural and Rural Development, Industry and Informal Sector, Tourism, Infrastructural Development- water, institutions such as schools, colleges e.t.c. for manpower development; roads, airways, telecom, railways, shipment.
6. Organization Strategies for Development
Top down Planning and Bottom up planning
7. Definition of Foreign Aid
· Why countries accept foreign aid
· Why donors give foreign aid
8. Structural Reforms and their impact on Development
The rationale of Structural Reforms, Impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes in specific sectors (e.g. education, Health, Agriculture)
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
By the end of the lesson the student should be able to:
1. Have an understanding of the economic aspects of development process.
2. Appreciate development problems experienced by the Less Industrialized Countries.
3. Suggest solutions to these problems.
DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
Historically the word development in its present context is of a very recent origin. It was used in the covenant of League of Nations and much later by the charter of the United Nations. The concept of development acquired more significance after the Second World War in 1945, partly as a requirement to help reconstruct the countries, which had been ruined by the two world wars, and later extended towards development of countries emerging from colonial rule.
From the general Literature of development and from the descriptions of development projects one may deduce that development represents a process through which relatively simple traditional, agrarian societies become industrialized and therefore modernized. This philosophy, characterized planning and development, was thought in most developing nations in the 1950s and 1960s.
In the 1950s and 1960s development tended to be looked at in strictly economic terms. Economic growth was considered synonymous with economic development, and thus the total development of a society. While economic growth is an essential component of a country’s development process, it is not sufficient. During this period, also referred to as the first development, meant the capacity of a national economy, whose initial economic condition has been more or less static for a long time, to generate and sustain an annual i
KHAN UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
IRD 1O3: DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS AND ITS APPLICATION
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Conceptualization of Development
Economic, Social, Political and Environmental Conceptions and indicators of Development
2. Theories of Development:
Rostow, Smith, Marx
3. Characteristics of transitional Societies
Low incomes, Dual Economies, Poverty, Population Growth, Scarce Strategic Natural Resources, Demonstration Effects and Unemployment.
4. Africa’s Development Objectives
Alleviation of Mass Poverty, Self-sustaining Growth and Development, Regional Integration and Collective Self-reliance.
5. Sectorial Development
Agricultural and Rural Development, Industry and Informal Sector, Tourism, Infrastructural Development- water, institutions such as schools, colleges e.t.c. for manpower development; roads, airways, telecom, railways, shipment.
6. Organization Strategies for Development
Top down Planning and Bottom up planning
7. Definition of Foreign Aid
· Why countries accept foreign aid
· Why donors give foreign aid
8. Structural Reforms and their impact on Development
The rationale of Structural Reforms, Impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes in specific sectors (e.g. education, Health, Agriculture)
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
By the end of the lesson the student should be able to:
1. Have an understanding of the economic aspects of development process.
2. Appreciate development problems experienced by the Less Industrialized Countries.
3. Suggest solutions to these problems.
DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
Historically the word development in its present context is of a very recent origin. It was used in the covenant of League of Nations and much later by the charter of the United Nations. The concept of development acquired more significance after the Second World War in 1945, partly as a requirement to help reconstruct the countries, which had been ruined by the two world wars, and later extended towards development of countries emerging from colonial rule.
From the general Literature of development and from the descriptions of development projects one may deduce that development represents a process through which relatively simple traditional, agrarian societies become industrialized and therefore modernized. This philosophy, characterized planning and development, was thought in most developing nations in the 1950s and 1960s.
In the 1950s and 1960s development tended to be looked at in strictly economic terms. Economic growth was considered synonymous with economic development, and thus the total development of a society. While economic growth is an essential component of a country’s development process, it is not sufficient. During this period, also referred to as the first development, meant the capacity of a national economy, whose initial economic condition has been more or less static for a long time, to generate and sustain an annual i
Thought of The Day
YESTERDAY’S A PAST…
…..TOMORROW IS A FUTURE….
…. BUT….
TODAY IS A GIFT
…… THAT’S WHY IT’S CALLED
PRESENT….!
Content
• Introduction
• Definition of Disaster
• Classification & Types of Disasters
• Disaster Nursing
• Disaster Management
• Disaster management Cycle
• Nodal Ministry of Disaster
Introduction
• Disaster word originated from Greek Word,
DUS= Bad & ASTR= Star….The root of disaster comes
from an Astrological sense of a calamity blamed on the
position of a planet.
• Health Sector Emergency Managers are concerned
with Public safety and public Health. Clients are
threatened/injured and damaged during Disaster. The
Disaster Management Act was established in 2005.
• Disaster is a sudden , calamitous event bringing great
damage, loss, destruction & devastation to life and
property.
Definition of Disaster
• “Any occurrence that causes damage,
ecological disruption, loss of human life ,
deterioration of health and health services ,
sufficient to warrant an extraordinary
response from outside the affected
community/area.” (WHO)
• “A disaster can defined as an occurrence
either Nature or Man made that causes Human
suffering and creates human needs that
victim can not alleviate without assistance.”
(American Red Cross)
Cont.
• “Disaster is an Emergency in which local
authorities cannot cope the goal of
emergency management is to protect public
health.”
ALL DISASTERS ARE EMERGENCIES
BUT
NOT ALL EMERGENCIES ARE DISASTERS
Definition of Hazard
• “Any phenomenon that has the potential to
cause Damage to people and their
Environment.” • There is a 4 classes of hazard
• Natural Hazard
• Technological Hazard
• Biological Hazard
• Societal Hazard
Vulnerability
Capacity to cope
High Low
Low High
Vulnerability
Very low Low
Exposure to
Hazard
High
Low
9
These are the determinants of risk (people).
THE MOST
VULNERABLE
Cont.
• For ex., an Earthquake hazard of the same
magnitude in a sparsely populated village of
Rajasthan and in the densely populated city of
Delhi will cause different levels of damage to
humans lives, property & Economic Activities.
• There is a two type of emergencies
• (i) Non-disaster Emergencies
• (ii) Disaster Emergencies
Classification Of Disasters
• Biological Disaster: Insect Infestation,
Epidemics & Animal Attacks.
• Geographical Disaster: Earth Quake &
Tsunamis, Volcanic Eruptions etc.
• Climatological Disaster: Droughts(Associated
with Food insecurities), Extreme Temperature
& Wild Fires
Cont.
• Hydrological Disaster: Flood including
Waves and Surges.
• Meteorological Disaster: Storms
Meteorological
Disasters
• Floods
• Tsunami
• Cyclone
• Hurricane
• Typhoon
• Snow
storm
• Blizzard
• Hail storm
Topographical
Disasters
• Earthquake
• Volcanic
Eruptions
• Asteroids
Environmental
Disasters
• Global
warming • Ozone
depletion • Solar flare
15
Technlogical
Disasters
• Transport
failure
• Public place
failure
• Fire
Industrial
• Chemical
spills
• Radioactive
spills
Security
relat
LECTURE NOTE
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Definitions:
Disaster:
The term disaster owes its origin to the French word “Desastre” which is a combination of
two words ‘des’ meaning bad and ‘aster’ meaning star. Thus the term refers to ‘Bad or Evil
star’.
A disaster can be defined as “A serious disruption in the functioning of the community
or a society causing wide spread material, economic, social or environmental losses
which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources”.
A disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, vulnerability and insufficient
capacity or measures to reduce the potential chances of risk.
A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on the vulnerable population and causes
damage, casualties and disruption. Any hazard – flood, earthquake or cyclone which
is a triggering event along with greater vulnerability (inadequate access to resources,
sick and old people, lack of awareness etc) would lead to disaster causing greater
loss to life and property.
Hazards:
The word ‘hazard’ owes its origin to the word ‘hasard’ in old French and ‘az-zahr’ in Arabic
meaning ‘chance’ or ‘luck’.
Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event, that threat or have the
potential for causing injury to life or damage to property or the environment.”
Hazards can be grouped into two broad categories:
1. Natural Hazard
2. Manmade Hazard
Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural phenomena (hazards
with meteorological, geological or even biological origin).
Examples of natural hazards are cyclones, tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic
eruption which are exclusively of natural origin.
Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio-natural hazards since their causes are
both natural and manmade.
For example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains, landslide or blocking of
drains with human waste.
Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human negligence.
Manmade hazards are associated with industries or energy generation facilities and
include explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife
etc.
Various Types of Disasters:
Difference between Disaster and Hazard:
Vulnerability:
Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community, structure, services or
geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on
account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster prone
area.”
Vulnerabilities can be categorized into:
1. Physical vulnerability
2. Socio-economic vulnerability
Physical Vulnerability: It includes notions of who and what may be damaged or destroyed
by natural hazard such as earthquakes or floods. It is based on the physical condition of
people and elements at risk, such as buildings, infrastructure etc; and their proximity,
location and nature of the hazard. It also relates to the technical capability of building and
Strategies Novartis can use to GROW from a Billion Dollar Company to a Trillion Dollar Company like Alphabet Inc
Novartis is a leading healthcare company which is situated in Switzerland and uses digital technologies and innovative science to come up with transformative ways of treatment in areas of great medicinal needs. This article explains what Novartis strategies and what they should employ so that they can rise from a billion dollar company to a trillion dollar company like the Google Alphabet Inc.
Novartis was formed in March 1996 by the merging of pharmaceutical and agrochemical divisions of Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz companies. Thanks to the merging of the two companies, Novartis is one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Novartis is one of the largest companies which achieved a great milestone within a few decades. Novartis as a whole is divided into three major divisions: Sandoz (generics), Innovative Medicines and Alcon (eyecare). Novartis is also involved in collaborative research projects that are publicly funded.
Below are some of Novartis best selling drugs and their revenue
1.Cosenty – This is the top selling drug with a revenue of 4.788 billion dollars
2.Enfresto – This has a revenue of 4.644 billions dollars
3.Promacta – This has a revenue 0f 2.088 billion dollars
Medicine manufactured by Novartis and their uses
Medicine Medicine use
Cosentyx Used to treat psoriatic arthritis
Entresto Used to treat heart failure
Lucentis Used to block abnormal vessel growth in the back of the eye
Tasigna Used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia which has the Philadelphia chromosome
Jakavi Used to treat myelofibrosis, polycythemia vera and graft-versus-host disease
Promacta Used to treat patients with abnormal low platelet count
Sandostatin Used to treat patients with tumor experiencing symptoms like flushing and diarrhea
Xolair Used to treat moderate and severe asthma
Gilenya Used to treat multiple sclerosis
How Novartis became one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world
1.Market control through partnership
Geigy, Sandoz and Ciba combined their power so that they can compete with strong foreign firms and formed a cartel called the Basal Syndicate or Basal IG. Basal IG secured most of the manufacturing facilities all over the US and across Europe. It later joined with IG Farben and other chemical companies to form a big cartel called the Quadrapartite Cartel which dominated all of the European market and enjoyed the profits made from the joint manufacturing.
2.Growth acceleration through mergers
Since competition was very rampant in the pharmaceutical industry, Ciba and Geigy decided to merge with Sandoz AG to form Novartis. With this merge, Novartis became one of the growing giants in the pharmaceutical industry. This made Novartis gain a lot of fame and build a strong reputation over other companies. Novartis majored on agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries which made it easy to focus on a specific mar
Strategies Novartis can use to GROW from a Billion Dollar Company to a Trillion Dollar Company like Alphabet Inc
Novartis is a leading healthcare company which is situated in Switzerland and uses digital technologies and innovative science to come up with transformative ways of treatment in areas of great medicinal needs. This article explains what Novartis strategies and what they should employ so that they can rise from a billion dollar company to a trillion dollar company like the Google Alphabet Inc.
Novartis was formed in March 1996 by the merging of pharmaceutical and agrochemical divisions of Ciba-Geigy and Sandoz companies. Thanks to the merging of the two companies, Novartis is one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world. Novartis is one of the largest companies which achieved a great milestone within a few decades. Novartis as a whole is divided into three major divisions: Sandoz (generics), Innovative Medicines and Alcon (eyecare). Novartis is also involved in collaborative research projects that are publicly funded.
Below are some of Novartis best selling drugs and their revenue
1.Cosenty – This is the top selling drug with a revenue of 4.788 billion dollars
2.Enfresto – This has a revenue of 4.644 billions dollars
3.Promacta – This has a revenue 0f 2.088 billion dollars
Medicine manufactured by Novartis and their uses
Medicine Medicine use
Cosentyx Used to treat psoriatic arthritis
Entresto Used to treat heart failure
Lucentis Used to block abnormal vessel growth in the back of the eye
Tasigna Used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia which has the Philadelphia chromosome
Jakavi Used to treat myelofibrosis, polycythemia vera and graft-versus-host disease
Promacta Used to treat patients with abnormal low platelet count
Sandostatin Used to treat patients with tumor experiencing symptoms like flushing and diarrhea
Xolair Used to treat moderate and severe asthma
Gilenya Used to treat multiple sclerosis
How Novartis became one of the biggest pharmaceutical companies in the world
1.Market control through partnership
Geigy, Sandoz and Ciba combined their power so that they can compete with strong foreign firms and formed a cartel called the Basal Syndicate or Basal IG. Basal IG secured most of the manufacturing facilities all over the US and across Europe. It later joined with IG Farben and other chemical companies to form a big cartel called the Quadrapartite Cartel which dominated all of the European market and enjoyed the profits made from the joint manufacturing.
2.Growth acceleration through mergers
Since competition was very rampant in the pharmaceutical industry, Ciba and Geigy decided to merge with Sandoz AG to form Novartis. With this merge, Novartis became one of the growing giants in the pharmaceutical industry. This made Novartis gain a lot of fame and build a strong reputation over other companies. Novartis majored on agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries which made it easy to focus on a specific mar
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342360535
DISASTER MANAGEMENT Compiled Notes for Unit Lectures
Method · June 2020
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13488.99842
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DISASTER MANAGEMENT
BY
DR. BENARD LANGO
Benard.lango@gmail.com
Compiled Notes for Unit Lectures
Disaster Management – Compiled Lecture Notes: Dr. Benard Lango 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................4
1. 0 Common Terminologies.....................................................................................................................4
1.2 Characteristics of Disasters.................................................................................................................5
1.3 Types of Disasters...............................................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Natural Disasters..........................................................................................................................6
1.3.2 Human-Made Disasters................................................................................................................6
1.3.3 Incidences of Mass Trauma..........................................................................................................7
1.4 Differences between Emergencies and Disasters...............................................................................7
1.5 Disaster Management Life Cycle.........................................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2:RISKS AND VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT........................................................................10
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................10
2.2 Hazards and Hazard Assessment ......................................................................................................11
2.2.1 Common Types of Hazards ........................................................................................................11
2.2.2 Hazard Control ...........................................................................................................................11
2.2.3 Hazard Classification ...............................................................
1).i) Qualities of effective communication.
1 Clarity
If your writing is clear, your reader is much more likely to understand and act on your message. Consider this the ultimate characteristic of effective communication.
2 Conciseness
As George Orwell wrote in his essay “Politics and the English Language,” if it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out. Your goal is to communicate your message as quickly and directly as possible. By doing this, you’ll save your reader time and trouble.
3 Correctness
Proper grammar and syntax increase the effectiveness and credibility of your message. Mistakes might affect clarity, create ambiguity, and raise doubts. In addition, the message’s information needs to be accurate. Misinformation can derail productivity in the workplace and compound disorganization.
4 Completeness
Effective communication requires the whole picture. Leaving information out can lead to unnecessary guesswork for readers. Comprehensive yet concise messages reduce follow-up questions and prevent delays.
5 Coherence
Coherent communication is logical. Your points should be relevant to your thesis, and the text’s tone and flow should be smooth.
6 Consideration
Empathy is a critical pillar of good workplace communication. Before you speak, consider your words and their potential effects on your listener.
7 Courtesy
Being courteous is as much a necessity in a corporate setting as anywhere. Your team is working together to achieve the same goals of success and growth. Inside jokes, insults, or an aggressive tone work against teamwork.
8 Concreteness
A concrete message is tangible, supported by facts for enhanced credibility, and helps your audience better understand what’s being conveyed. It also mitigates the risk of misunderstanding, a common struggle in the workplace.
9 Consistency
Following the tips above will ensure that your communication is effective. Once you’ve improved, however, don’t let your quality slip. Your teams and operations are valuable and should always be treated as such. Effective communication depends on a steady and efficient workflow from everyone. ii)the process of effective communication.
The Different Elements in The Process of Communication that makes it to be a process are:
i)Sender
The very foundation of communication process is laid by the person who transmits or sends the message. He is the sender of the message which may be a thought, idea, a picture, symbol, report or an order and postures and gestures, even a momentary smile.
ii)Message
Message is referred to as the information conveyed by words as in speech and write-ups, signs, pictures or symbols depending upon the situation and the nature and importance of information desired to be sent.
iii)Encoding
Encoding is putting the targeted message into appropriate medium which may be verbal or non-verbal depending upon the situation, time, space and nature of the message to be sent. T
iv)Channel
Channel(s) refers to the way or mode th
E STUDY 5-1 UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
FOCUSING IN
Members of the clinically significant group of
parasites located in blood and tissue that move
by means of flagella, known as the hemoflagel
lates, belong to the genera Leishmania and Try
panosoma. There are four morphologic forms of
clinical significance associated with these hemo
flagellates: amastigote, promastigote, epimasti
gote, and trypomastigote, all of which are defined
and described in detail in this chapter. Although
the specific life cycle may vary, all the organisms
in these two genera involve some combination of
the four morphologic forms. The transmission of
all hemoflagellates is via the bite of an arthropod
vector. The major difference between the two
genera is the primary diagnostic form found in
each; for Leishmania it is the amastigote and for
Trypanosoma it is the trypomastigote, with the
exception of Trypanosoma cruzi, in which amas
tigotes may also be found. Speciation within the
genera usually depends heavily on the patient
importance of this information, this text pro
vides a discussion of the geographic distribution
and symptomatology of each hemoflagellate.
Suspicions of hemoflagellate disease processes
are typically confirmed by more advanced diag
nostic techniques, such as serologic tests. Because
the initial diagnosis of hemoflagellate infections
relies primarily on the detection of the morpho
logic forms, this text will begin with a detailed
discussion of the morphologic forms.
MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE
CYCLE NOTES
Morphology
Amastigotes. The average roundish to oval
amastigote measures 5 by 3 μm in size (Figs. 51
and 5-2; Table 5-1). The amastigote contains a
nucleus, a basal body structure (called a blepha
roplast), and a small parabasal body. The large
single nucleus is typically located offcenter,
sometimes present more toward the edge of the
Nineyearold Chares, an African boy, recenty emigrated
to the United States from Kenya with his family. He began
complaining of chills and diarrhea 2 weeks prior to the
office vsit. After taking his temperature, whch revealed a
fever, hs mother took him into his pediatrician’s office.
During the examination, the doctor found a skn leson on
hs right arm and marked hepatosplenomegaly. A compete
bood count (CBC) was ordered, which revealed that
Charles was anemic. The doctor, afraid that the chid
was experiencing dum dum fever (kalaazar), ordered
a biopsy of the infected skin lesion and blood for
parasite study.
When the specimens were received in the laboratory,
the laboratory technician on duty made slides of the skn
lesion material and blood, stained them with Giemsa stan,
and carefully examined the slides. No parastes were found
in the bood slide The biopsy slide revealed an oval organ
ism (see diagram); it contained one nuceus, a parabasal
body, and an axonemelike structure.
Questions for Consideration
1. What parasite do you suspect? (Objective 5-10B)
2. Which morphologic form of the parasit
iemsa Stain report; Table of ContentsIntroductionObjectives of Giemsa stainPrincipleReagents UsedProcedureStaining procedure 1: Thin Film stainingStaining Procedure 2: Thick Film StainingResultsInterpretation/ConclusionApplications Giemsa stainAdvantagesLimitationsReferencesFour Charged in Plot to Kidnap an Iranian Journalist in New YorkIntroductionGiemsa stain was a name adopted from a Germany Chemist scientist, for his application of a combination of reagents in demonstrating the presence of parasites in malaria.It belongs to a group of stains known as Romanowsky stains. These are neutral stains made up of a mixture of oxidized methylene blue, azure, and Eosin Y and they performed on an air-dried slide that is post-fixed with methanol. Romanowsky stains are applied in the differentiation of cells, pathological examinations of samples like blood and bone marrow films and demonstration of parasites e.g malaria. There are four types of Romanoswsky stains:Giemsa stainJenner StainWright stainMay-Grunwald StainLeishman stainObjectives of Giemsa stainTo accurately prepare the Giemsa stain stock solutionTo stain and identify blood cellsTo differentiate blood cells nuclei from the cytoplasmPrincipleGiemsa stain is a gold standard staining technique that is used for both thin and thick smears to examine blood for malaria parasites, a routine check-up for other blood parasites and to morphologically differentiate the nuclear and cytoplasm of Erythrocytes, leucocytes and Platelets and parasites.Like any type of Romanowsky stains, it composed of both the Acidic and Basic dyes, in relation to affinities of acidity and basicity for blood cells. Azure and methylene blue, a basic dye binds to the acid nucleus producing blue-purple color. Eosin is an acidic dye that is attracted to the cytoplasm and cytoplasmic granules which are alkaline-producing red coloration. The stain must be buffered with water to pH 6.8 or 7.2, to precipitate the dyes to bind simple materials.Classically, Giemsa stain is a differential stain which is made up of a combination of reagents (Azure, Methylene blue, and Eosin dye) used widely in cytogenetics and histopathology for the diagnosis of:Malaria, spirochetes and other blood parasitesChlamydia trachomatis inclusion bodiesBorrelia sppYersinia pestisHistoplasma sppPneumocystis jiroveci cystsReagents UsedMethanolGiemsa powderGlycerinWater (Buffer)ProcedurePreparation of the Giemsa Stain Stock solution (500ml)Into 250ml of methanol, add 3.8g of Giemsa powder and dissolve.Heat the solution up to ~60oCThen, add 250ml of glycerin to the solution, slowly.Filter the solution and leave it to stand for about 1-2 months before use.Preparation of Working solutionAdd 10ml of stock solution to 80ml of distilled water and 10ml of methanolStaining procedure 1: Thin Film stainingOn a clean dry microscopic glass slide, make a thin film of the specimen (blood) and leave to air dry.dip the smear (2-3 dips) into pure methanol for fixation of the smear, lea
able of ContentsIntroductionObjectives of Giemsa stainPrincipleReagents UsedProcedureStaining procedure 1: Thin Film stainingStaining Procedure 2: Thick Film StainingResultsInterpretation/ConclusionApplications Giemsa stainAdvantagesLimitationsReferencesFour Charged in Plot to Kidnap an Iranian Journalist in New YorkIntroductionGiemsa stain was a name adopted from a Germany Chemist scientist, for his application of a combination of reagents in demonstrating the presence of parasites in malaria.It belongs to a group of stains known as Romanowsky stains. These are neutral stains made up of a mixture of oxidized methylene blue, azure, and Eosin Y and they performed on an air-dried slide that is post-fixed with methanol. Romanowsky stains are applied in the differentiation of cells, pathological examinations of samples like blood and bone marrow films and demonstration of parasites e.g malaria. There are four types of Romanoswsky stains:Giemsa stainJenner StainWright stainMay-Grunwald StainLeishman stainObjectives of Giemsa stainTo accurately prepare the Giemsa stain stock solutionTo stain and identify blood cellsTo differentiate blood cells nuclei from the cytoplasmPrincipleGiemsa stain is a gold standard staining technique that is used for both thin and thick smears to examine blood for malaria parasites, a routine check-up for other blood parasites and to morphologically differentiate the nuclear and cytoplasm of Erythrocytes, leucocytes and Platelets and parasites.Like any type of Romanowsky stains, it composed of both the Acidic and Basic dyes, in relation to affinities of acidity and basicity for blood cells. Azure and methylene blue, a basic dye binds to the acid nucleus producing blue-purple color. Eosin is an acidic dye that is attracted to the cytoplasm and cytoplasmic granules which are alkaline-producing red coloration. The stain must be buffered with water to pH 6.8 or 7.2, to precipitate the dyes to bind simple materials.Classically, Giemsa stain is a differential stain which is made up of a combination of reagents (Azure, Methylene blue, and Eosin dye) used widely in cytogenetics and histopathology for the diagnosis of:Malaria, spirochetes and other blood parasitesChlamydia trachomatis inclusion bodiesBorrelia sppYersinia pestisHistoplasma sppPneumocystis jiroveci cystsReagents UsedMethanolGiemsa powderGlycerinWater (Buffer)ProcedurePreparation of the Giemsa Stain Stock solution (500ml)Into 250ml of methanol, add 3.8g of Giemsa powder and dissolve.Heat the solution up to ~60oCThen, add 250ml of glycerin to the solution, slowly.Filter the solution and leave it to stand for about 1-2 months before use.Preparation of Working solutionAdd 10ml of stock solution to 80ml of distilled water and 10ml of methanolStaining procedure 1: Thin Film stainingOn a clean dry microscopic glass slide, make a thin film of the specimen (blood) and leave to air dry.dip the smear (2-3 dips) into pure methanol for fixation of the
nd invade the genital ridges in the sixth week of
development. here they form primitive sex cords. in
the absence of tdf, medullary cords disappear and
get replaced by a vascular stroma (ovarian medulla).
cortical cords develop and surround one or more
primitive germ cells. the germ cells subsequently
develop into oogonia, while the surrounding epithelial
cells form the follicular cells. this differentiates
undifferentiated gonads into ovaries. stroma of ovary
develops from basal mesenchyme. granulosa and theca
cells develop from celomic epithelium.
development of genital ducts
development of genital duct system and the external
genitalia occurs under the influence of hormones
circulating in the fetus. sertoli cells in the fetal testes
produce a nonsteroidal substance known as müllerian
inhibiting substance (mis) that causes regression of
müllerian ducts. androgen from the fetal testes causes
masculinization of external genitalia. in the absence of
mis, müllerian ducts develop and mesonephric duct
system regresses. in the absence of androgen, external
genitalia differentiate into female phenotype. the
müllerian duct develops between the fifth and sixth
weeks lateral to intermediate cell mass and wolffian
duct. the müllerian duct has the following three parts:
•cranial vertical portion that opens into celomic
cavity. later it differentiates into fallopian tubes.
•horizontal part crosses the mesonephric duct.
•caudal vertical part that fuses with its partner
from opposite side. this fused part later differ
entiates into uterus, cervix, and upper one-third
of the vagina.
the dorsal celomic epithelium (which forms
müllerian duct) remains open at its site of origin and
ultimately forms the fimbriated ends of the fallopian
tubes. at their point of origin, each of the müllerian
ducts forms a solid bud. each bud penetrates the
mesenchyme lateral and parallel to the wolffian duct.
as the solid buds elongate, a lumen appears in the
cranial part, beginning at each celomic opening. the
caudal end of each müllerian duct crosses the way
1- Anatomy of Female Reproductive System.pdfelphaswalela
vement along the dorsal mesentery of the hindgut
and invade the genital ridges in the sixth week of
development. here they form primitive sex cords. in
the absence of tdf, medullary cords disappear and
get replaced by a vascular stroma (ovarian medulla).
cortical cords develop and surround one or more
primitive germ cells. the germ cells subsequently
develop into oogonia, while the surrounding epithelial
cells form the follicular cells. this differentiates
undifferentiated gonads into ovaries. stroma of ovary
develops from basal mesenchyme. granulosa and theca
cells develop from celomic epithelium.
development of genital ducts
development of genital duct system and the external
genitalia occurs under the influence of hormones
circulating in the fetus. sertoli cells in the fetal testes
produce a nonsteroidal substance known as müllerian
inhibiting substance (mis) that causes regression of
müllerian ducts. androgen from the fetal testes causes
masculinization of external genitalia. in the absence of
mis, müllerian ducts develop and mesonephric duct
system regresses. in the absence of androgen, external
genitalia differentiate into female phenotype. the
müllerian duct develops between the fifth and sixth
weeks lateral to intermediate cell mass and wolffian
duct. the müllerian duct has the following three parts:
•cranial vertical portion that opens into celomic
cavity. later it differentiates into fallopian tubes.
•horizontal part crosses the mesonephric duct.
•caudal vertical part that fuses with its partner
from opposite side. this fused part later differ
entiates into uterus, cervix, and upper one-third
of the vagina.
the dorsal celomic epithelium (which forms
müllerian duct) remains open at its site of origin and
ultimately forms the fimbriated ends of the fallopian
tubes. at their point of origin, each of the müllerian
ducts forms a solid bud. each bud penetrates the
mesenchyme lateral and parallel to the wolffian duct.
as the solid buds elongate, a lumen appears in the
cranial part, beginning at each celomic opening. the
caudal end of each müllerian duct crosses the ventra
This comprehensive program covers essential aspects of performance marketing, growth strategies, and tactics, such as search engine optimization (SEO), pay-per-click (PPC) advertising, content marketing, social media marketing, and more
The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Modern Society.pdfssuser3e63fc
Just a game Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?Assignment 3
1. What has made Louis Vuitton's business model successful in the Japanese luxury market?
2. What are the opportunities and challenges for Louis Vuitton in Japan?
3. What are the specifics of the Japanese fashion luxury market?
4. How did Louis Vuitton enter into the Japanese market originally? What were the other entry strategies it adopted later to strengthen its presence?
5. Will Louis Vuitton have any new challenges arise due to the global financial crisis? How does it overcome the new challenges?
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Exploring Career Paths in Cybersecurity for Technical CommunicatorsBen Woelk, CISSP, CPTC
Brief overview of career options in cybersecurity for technical communicators. Includes discussion of my career path, certification options, NICE and NIST resources.
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1. Mycology
Characteristics of fungi
Fungi are decomposers
They are very many species but 100 have been associated
with human disease
The cells vary from single to multicellular. Some multicellular
are large enough to be seen by naked eye
Fungi are eukaryotes with nuclear membrane and have
chromosome within their nucleus and organelles in cytoplasm
They have mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum
Their cell structure contain a rigid cell wall and they also do
contain cytoplasmic cell membrane. Its content differs from the
mammalian cell i.e. they contain ergosterol.
2. Cont…
The differs from that of mammal in that they
contain chitin, mannan and glucan.
Chitins are also within the cell wall and are
inert compound that uncoats the rigidity of
the fungal cell wall.
The fungal cells grow only in organic
compound, they only use carbcell wall of fungi
on as the source of energy and mostly found
in decaying organic matter
3. • The classification of fungi is based on the
– Mode of reproduction
– Micromorphology
• Mode of reproduction
– Perfect fungi: these reproduce both sexually and asexually.
They reproduce sexually by means of characteristic sexual
spores, which are used to classify fungi into four broad
classes, thus: Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Zygomycetes,
Oomycetes
– Imperfect fungi: also called Deuteromycetes – these
reproduce only asexually
• Micromorphology
– Yeasts
– Molds
– Dimorphic
Classification of fungi
4. Most of the human fungi fall in the Deuteromycete group.
• Fungi can also be classified according to the tissue that they infect.
This is done using fungal diseases that they cause. They are:
– Superficial mycocete: they cause lession on the skin and
appendages. And they never invade the living tissues. The
organisms of these organism are dermatophytes. They have
preference for keratin because they produce an enzyme that
break down keratin. The enzyme is keratinase. There are three
(3) genera: i. microspora, ii. Epidemophyton, iii. Trichophyton.
They have septic hyphae and microconidia.
– Subcutaneous fungi: they cause diseases in the inner surface to
the skin. They can spread into the lymphatics. They are
introduced through the skin. Examples are: Sporotherix
schenkeii which causes sperotrichosis, Madunella mycetoma.
Classification of fungi
5. • Systemic fungi: they affect the internal organs i.e. lungs,
kidney e.t.c. they cause some of the most severe diseases in
human. Some of them are sub clinical in that there are no
clinical manifestation as such but those that cause clinical
characteristics are usually severe. Most are dimorphic in
nature and changes into yeast form in the body. Examples
are: Cryptococcus neoformans (pure yeast), Histoplasma
capsulatum (dimorphic), Blastomyces dermatitidis
(dimorphic), Coccidioides and Paracoccidioides (dimorphic)
• Opportunistic fungi: are occasional pathogens that attack a
patient depending on the prevailing conditions of the
patient. Example is Candida. They are termed as normal
flora, they do not cause disease unless they are allowed to
overgrow causing thrush. They form pseudohyphae in order
to penetrate the skin. Another one is the Aspergillus, it is
purely a mold and it does not change into other form. It
causes the respiratory tract infection (chest problem) and
they are toxin producers which affect the lung.
6. Classification of fungi
• Divided into 4 main classes:
• Phycomycetes: addition subdivide into the first six
classes. The six classes lack regular septa in their
hyphal filaments (coenocytic hyphae), resulting in
the presence of many nuclei in each cell filament.
Members of these six classes include organisms that
are infrequent causes of human disease even
though several genera in the class Zymomycetes do
cause occasional serious infection in debilitated or
immunologically compromised person.
7. • Ascomycetes: or sac fungi, form one or more sexual
spores within a saclike cell called ascus. The asexual
spores produced by the Ascomycetes are frequently
single-celled microconidia. Microconidia may be
produced in long chains extending from an aerial
hypha called conidiophore. Produce regular septa
which divide the mycelium into large number of
individual cells. Each septum, however, has ‘a hole’
which permits the free flow of cytoplasmic and
nuclear material between the cells. They grow only as
single – celled yeast, and by far the best known yeast in
this class are those of the genus Saccharomyces upon
which both the baking and the alcoholic beverage
industries are totally dependent.
8. • Basidiomycetes: form their sexual basidospores
externally on club shaped cells called basidia. Asexual
reproduction may also occur by budding, microconidia,
or fragmentation of the hyphal filament. The hyphae
are usually aseptate. Causes few human disease but
many plant diseases. In this group is musshroom
• Deuteromycetes: (fungi imperfecti) comprise of a large
group of fungi for which no sexual states has been
demonstrated. Some members produce sexual spores
which mixed with the correct mating type and, as a
result , have acquired 2 names; one for sexual
classification and the other for older asexual name.
many of human pathogens belong to this group.
• Disease caused by deuteromycetes include superficial
infection, cutaneous infection and the subcutaneous
infection and deep seated systemic infection.
9. Mycoses
• Establishment of a mycotic infection depend on the
inoculums of the fungi and the resistance of the host.
• Severity of infection depend on immunological factors
of the host
• Some of the reasons why mycoses/fungal diseases are
prevalent are:
– Immune states of the patient because of HIV:
immunosuppressive drug
– The transplantation therapy
– Invasive procedures that are used today of tissue i.e.
operations
10. Diagnosis
• Wet mount: where this refers to wet preparations i.e. a drop a
liquid on a slide and cover it with a cover slip. It is a common
procedure for diagnosing dermatophytes. i.e. Skin scrapping,
mashilingi, hair cuttings.
• Prepare the wet mount and observe spores and conidia
morphology. In this, common light microscope is used. Staining
using electrophenol blue stain or use potassium hydroxide in
skin scrapping.
• Serological methods (Serology): here systemic infections are
detected. Some of the test are latex agglutination and
immunodiffusion.
• Direct flourescent microscopy: here you stain the specimen
with flourescent dyes before observing under the fluorescent
microscope.
Stain biopsy of specimens or section of body tissues
11. • The most definitive method is the culture the organism in a cultural
media. The most commonly used media for fungal culture cells is the
sabaroud dextrose agar (SDA). The incubation temperature depends
on the organism form whether it is a yeast form or a mold form. For
the yeast form, culture at 37 degrees centigrade, while for mold you
culture at a lower temperature at 25 degrees centigrade.
• After fungal isolation, look at the colonial morphology in terms of
color, texture, size and shape. After observation, you may want to
view it on the microscope without staining or stain usual
electrophenol blue. NEVER USE GRAM STAINING.
•
12. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Fungal Diseases
• Mycosis- fungal infection
– < 100 cause human disease
– Not highly contagious
– Humans acquire from nature
• Groups based on degree on tissue involvement and
mode of entry
13. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Introduction
Fungal Infections
Superficial infections: involve outermost layers of skin
and its appendages [ nails or hair] ( Dermatophytosis)
• Cutaneous infections: involve deeper layers of skin
causing allergic or inflammatory response
• Subcutaneous infections: fungi with low virulence,
localized infection, or spread by mycelial growth
Systemic infections: caused by true pathogenic fungi or
opportunistic saprobes
Opportunistic infections
14. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Mycoses: diseases cause by fungi
• Superficial Cutaneous
• Subcutaneous Systemic
• Opportunistic
15. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued)
I. Cutaneous mycoses: Fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails.
Secrete keratinase, an enzyme that degrades keratin.
Infection is transmitted by direct contact or contact with infected hair (hair
salon) or cells (nail files, shower floors).
Examples:
– Ringworm (Tinea capitis and T. corporis)
– Athlete’s foot (Tinea pedis)
– Jock itch (Tinea cruris)
16. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Cutaneous Infections
Dermatophytic hyphomycetes
• 40 species
• Epidermophyton (2 species)
• Microsporum (17 species)
• Trichophyton (24 species)
• 50% of dermatophytes human specific
19. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Cutaneous Infections
– Cause common tinea (ringworm)
– Grow only on humans
– Reservoir not in soil or animals
– Reservoir in carpets and upholstery for up to two
years
20. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Cutaneous Infections
• Trichophyton rubrum
• Chronic infections of
the toe nails
Tinea corporis
21. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Cutaneous Infections
• Microsporum canis
– Reservoir in cat
– May move to humans or dogs
– Dies out after one or two person-person transfers
22. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Cutaneous Infections
• Disease process
– Fungus stimulates epithelial cells of skin to divide
more frequently
– Makes more keratin available to fungus
– Some species race specific in humans
– Some species body location specific
23. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued)
II. Subcutaneous mycoses: Fungal infections beneath the skin.
Caused by saprophytic fungi that live in soil or on vegetation.
Infection occurs by implantation of spores or mycelial fragments into a
skin wound.
Can spread to lymph vessels.
Superficial mycoses: Infections of hair shafts and superficial epidermal cells.
Prevalent in tropical climates.
24. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Subcutaneous mycoses
Subcutaneous infections - over 35 species produce chronic inflammatory disease of
subcutaneous tissues and lymphatics. e.g. sporotrichosis - ulcerated lesions at site of
inoculation followed by multiple nodules - caused by a dimorphic fungus: Sporotrix
schenckii.
25. Sporotrichosis
• Agent is Sporotherix schenkii
• It is a chronic infection of both the cuteneous and
subcutenous tissue. They tend to form ulcers that kind of
drain their fluids. Occasional mycetoma my be caused.
• It is transmitted through pricks i.e. thorns
• The most common parts of the body infected are the feet
(primary source of infection). From the primary source of
infection, the disease may pass on to the lymphatic system.
• Diagnosis: clinical specimens are pass, biopsy material or
sputum can be used incase pulmonary tract is infected.
Staining of biopsy material may be done in addition to
culture. No serological. NB// Fungi are not serologically Dx
because they are pure antigens
26. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Subcutaneous Infections
Chromoblastosis
• Common among barefoot peoples of the
tropics
• Soil hyphomycete species
• Enters human by thorns or wood slivers
– Fungus grows host cells respond by rapid cell
division wart-like growths on feet or legs
27. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Subcutaneous Infections
Mycotic Mycetoma
• Disease of barefoot tropical people
• Entry: wound on foot
• Attacks various tissues
– Stimulates formation of tumor
– Compact fungal colonies form within tumor
29. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
III. Systemic Mycoses
Introduction
• Caused by . . .
– Specialized pathogens
• Dimorphic
– One form outside the host
– Another form inside the host
– Opportunistic saprobes
30. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Systemic Mycoses
Dimorphic Pathogen Mycoses
• Histoplasmosis
– Histoplasma capsulatum
• Grows on bird droppings, chicken manure, bat guano
– Conidia inhaled primary lung infection
almost always fatal until recently
31. Histoplasmosis
The causative agent is Histoplasma capsulatum. It is a
primary systemic disease that affect the liver, spleen, bone
marrow and lung
• Its primary sign is spleenomegally. Spleenomegally appears
in children while in adult the primary sign is the pulmonary
tract having lesion.
• The porthole of entry for histoplasma is the lungs
• In places where histoplasma is a common organism, most
of the infections are subclinical
• Diagnosis: Specimen to be used for lab diagnosis depends
on the part of the body infected. For the dimorphic fungi,
one has to culture them two temperatures: 25 and 37
degrees centigrade. In serological test, the following can be
used: ELISA, Complement fixation test, Immunodiffusion.
32. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Systemic mycoses: Fungal infections deep within the body. Can affect a
number if tissues and organs.
Usually caused by fungi that live in the soil and are inhaled. Not
contagious.
Examples:
– Histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum): Initial infection
in lungs. Later spreads through blood to most organs.
– Coccidiomycosis (Coccidioides immites): Resembles
tuberculosis.
34. Systemic Mycoses
Coccidiomycosis
• Coccidioides immitis
• Also a pulmonary disease and most of the patients in
which it occurs, it will resolve on their own (60%). It is
mainly found in USA and also S. America, N. America
• The organisms are mostly found in desert soils and
rodent barrows.
• Diagnosis: the clinical specimens are the sputum, and
pass from the skin since it affects the skin also.
Serological test can be done similar to histoplasma.
35. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Systemic Mycoses
• Infection, disease process, and clinical
symptoms similar to histoplasmosis
• Can be effectively treated with fluconazole
36. Paracoccidiomycosis
• Agent is Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.
• It affects the mucus membrane and the skin.
• Diagnosis: can be done by KOH microscopy on
sputum specimen or on skin scrapping and
also on pass. The organism can also be
cultured at 25 degrees centigrade using SDA
as the medium culture. Serological test used is
the immodiffusion.
37. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
FUNGAL DISEASES (Continued)
IV. Opportunistic mycoses:
Caused by organisms that are generally harmless unless individual has
weakened defenses:
– AIDS and cancer patients
– Individuals treated with broad spectrum antibiotics
– Very old or very young individuals (newborns).
Examples:
– Aspergillosis: Inhalation of Aspergillus spores.
– Yeast Infections or Candidiasis: Caused mainly by Candida
albicans. Part of normal mouth, esophagus, and vaginal
flora.
38. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Opportunistic Pathogens/Disease
General
• Pathogens all grow well at 37C
• None cause disease in well individuals
• Require breakdown in resistance system
• Complication of diabetes, AIDS, advanced
cancer, sequel to steroid or antibiotic
treatments
39. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Opportunistic Pathogens/Disease
Zygomycosis
• Species of Zygomycota
– Rhizopus, Mucor, Rhizomucor
• Rhinocerebral mycosis
– Spores enter through sinuses
– Grows rapidly outward to the eyes and inward
towards the brain
40. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Opportunistic Pathogens/Disease
Aspergillosis
• Aspergillus sp.
• Bronchiopulmonary aspergillosis
– Mucus within the bronchi severe allergic
reaction
• Aspergilloma
– Forms a mycelia ball in lung cavity formed from
earlier TB
41. Aspergillosis
Aspergilus cause a variety of diseases. One of them being allergic reaction due to
the hypersensitivity of aspergillus spores
• The organism can invade the lungs the disease my invade other organs like the
heart causing endocardiasis. They may also invade the bones
• There is also fungal ball: this is when the apergillus organisms invade the
carvities that are left by tuberculosis (TB). Hepatitis: toxins produced by
Aspergillus accumulate in the liver.
• There are many species of Aspergillus but only 3 are associated with human
diseases namely: A. flavus, A. Niger and A. fumigatus
• Aspergillus are worldwide distributed found in soil e.t.c. They also cause
opportunistic diseases rather than frank infections/true.
• To culture Aspergilllus, depends on the part of tissue from which the specimen
is taken.
• The incubation period is 3 weeks because some are slow growers and others
fast growers
42. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
Opportunistic Pathogens/Disease
– Surgical intervention often required
• Invasive aspergillosis
– Severely debilitated
– Immunosuppressed (AIDS)
• Almost always fatal until recently
43. Zarqa Private UniversityBiology 4223 – The
Fungi
AIDS and Mycoses
• Aspergillosis
• Candidiases (Candidiasis seen in 2/3 of AIDS
patients
• Cryptococcosis
• Zygomycosis
• Esophogeal candidiasis and cryptococcosis are
strong indicators of AIDS