This document discusses medical fungi that can cause superficial and systemic mycoses. It covers the general characteristics of fungi including their morphology, classification, and modes of infection. Specific types of mycoses are described such as dermatophytoses caused by fungi like Trichophyton that infect the skin, hair, and nails. Deeper mycoses like sporotrichosis that infect subcutaneous tissue via minor trauma are also outlined. The document provides details on laboratory diagnostics and culturing of different fungi as well as antifungal therapies.
This document provides information on laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections. It begins with an introduction to mycology and classification of fungi. It then discusses various diagnostic methods for different types of fungal infections, including microscopic examination, culture techniques, biochemical methods, and molecular identification. Specific techniques are described for diagnosing candidiasis, including microscopic morphology, culture characteristics on different media, biochemical profiles, commercially available identification systems, and molecular methods. Sample collection and processing methods are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of mycology including the identification and diagnosis of various fungi. It begins with descriptions of yeast and molds, their growth characteristics and morphologies. It discusses specimen collection and transport as well as common fungal culture media. Identification methods for yeast and molds such as MALDI-TOF, sequencing, and microscopy are covered. Specific sections focus on dimorphic fungi including Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidioides immitis/posadasii and their epidemiology, disease manifestations, diagnostics including culture characteristics, histopathology and serology. Safety practices for working with fungi in the laboratory are also reviewed.
The document discusses superficial mycoses, which are fungal infections confined to the outer layer of the skin. It describes four types: pityriasis versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur presenting as discolored patches; tinea nigra caused by Exophiala werneckii appearing as brown-black palmar lesions; black piedra caused by Piedraia hortae forming hard nodules on hair; and white piedra caused by Trichosporon beigelli producing a soft white growth on hair. Diagnosis involves potassium hydroxide preparation of skin or hair samples or fungal culture. Treatment consists of topical antifungals like imidazoles or
This document discusses deep fungal infections including subcutaneous and systemic mycoses. It provides details on various subcutaneous mycoses such as sporotrichosis, chromoblastomycosis, and mycetoma. Sporotrichosis is caused by Sporothrix schenckii and can present as lymphangitic or fixed cutaneous lesions. Chromoblastomycosis is caused by several fungi and presents as slow-growing exophytic lesions on the feet and legs. Both infections are diagnosed through microscopic identification of fungal elements and both typically require lengthy antifungal treatment.
1. Mycetoma is a chronic subcutaneous infection characterized by painless swelling, sinuses, and discharge of characteristic grains. It is mostly caused by fungi (eumycetoma) or bacteria (actinomycetoma) transmitted through skin trauma in tropical areas.
2. Chromoblastomycosis presents as verrucous plaques or nodules that may ulcerate, caused by dematiaceous fungi transmitted through skin abrasions in tropical regions. Phaeohypomycosis is a related fungal infection characterized by subcutaneous cysts.
3. Other fungal infections described include sporotrichosis causing ulcerative nodules along lymphatics, lobomy
1. Subcutaneous mycoses are chronic fungal or bacterial infections of the subcutaneous tissues that can spread through the lymphatics or form sinus tracts. They are caused by organisms found in soil and are most common in tropical regions.
2. Mycetoma, also known as Madura foot, is a common subcutaneous mycosis characterized by a slowly progressive granulomatous infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues of the extremities. It is caused by fungi like Madurella mycetomatis or bacteria like Actinomyces.
3. Diagnosis involves identification of fungal or bacterial grains from infected lesions through microscopic examination of potassium hydroxide mounts, staining techniques,
This document provides an overview of systemic and opportunistic mycoses. It defines systemic mycoses as deep fungal infections caused by soil-dwelling dimorphic fungi that are accidentally inhaled. The main causative agents described are Blastomyces dermatitidis, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Coccidioides immitis, and Histoplasma capsulatum. Opportunistic mycoses occur in immunocompromised individuals and the most common causes are Candida species, Aspergillus species, and Cryptococcus neoformans. Key clinical features, laboratory diagnostics including microscopy, culture, and serology, treatment approaches, and important epidemiological details are summarized
1. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are caused by microbial invasion of the urinary tract from the kidneys to the urethra. E. coli is the most common causative organism, followed by other gram-negative bacilli and some gram-positive organisms.
2. Laboratory diagnosis of UTIs involves urine microscopy to identify white and red blood cells and bacteria, culture to isolate and quantify bacterial growth, and antibiotic susceptibility testing to determine the most effective antibiotic treatment.
3. A significant bacterial count of ≥105 CFU/ml indicates an active UTI, while lower counts may be considered contaminated. Identification of bacterial isolates is done through colony characteristics, gram stain, and biochemical tests
This document provides information on laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections. It begins with an introduction to mycology and classification of fungi. It then discusses various diagnostic methods for different types of fungal infections, including microscopic examination, culture techniques, biochemical methods, and molecular identification. Specific techniques are described for diagnosing candidiasis, including microscopic morphology, culture characteristics on different media, biochemical profiles, commercially available identification systems, and molecular methods. Sample collection and processing methods are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of mycology including the identification and diagnosis of various fungi. It begins with descriptions of yeast and molds, their growth characteristics and morphologies. It discusses specimen collection and transport as well as common fungal culture media. Identification methods for yeast and molds such as MALDI-TOF, sequencing, and microscopy are covered. Specific sections focus on dimorphic fungi including Histoplasma capsulatum, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Coccidioides immitis/posadasii and their epidemiology, disease manifestations, diagnostics including culture characteristics, histopathology and serology. Safety practices for working with fungi in the laboratory are also reviewed.
The document discusses superficial mycoses, which are fungal infections confined to the outer layer of the skin. It describes four types: pityriasis versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur presenting as discolored patches; tinea nigra caused by Exophiala werneckii appearing as brown-black palmar lesions; black piedra caused by Piedraia hortae forming hard nodules on hair; and white piedra caused by Trichosporon beigelli producing a soft white growth on hair. Diagnosis involves potassium hydroxide preparation of skin or hair samples or fungal culture. Treatment consists of topical antifungals like imidazoles or
This document discusses deep fungal infections including subcutaneous and systemic mycoses. It provides details on various subcutaneous mycoses such as sporotrichosis, chromoblastomycosis, and mycetoma. Sporotrichosis is caused by Sporothrix schenckii and can present as lymphangitic or fixed cutaneous lesions. Chromoblastomycosis is caused by several fungi and presents as slow-growing exophytic lesions on the feet and legs. Both infections are diagnosed through microscopic identification of fungal elements and both typically require lengthy antifungal treatment.
1. Mycetoma is a chronic subcutaneous infection characterized by painless swelling, sinuses, and discharge of characteristic grains. It is mostly caused by fungi (eumycetoma) or bacteria (actinomycetoma) transmitted through skin trauma in tropical areas.
2. Chromoblastomycosis presents as verrucous plaques or nodules that may ulcerate, caused by dematiaceous fungi transmitted through skin abrasions in tropical regions. Phaeohypomycosis is a related fungal infection characterized by subcutaneous cysts.
3. Other fungal infections described include sporotrichosis causing ulcerative nodules along lymphatics, lobomy
1. Subcutaneous mycoses are chronic fungal or bacterial infections of the subcutaneous tissues that can spread through the lymphatics or form sinus tracts. They are caused by organisms found in soil and are most common in tropical regions.
2. Mycetoma, also known as Madura foot, is a common subcutaneous mycosis characterized by a slowly progressive granulomatous infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues of the extremities. It is caused by fungi like Madurella mycetomatis or bacteria like Actinomyces.
3. Diagnosis involves identification of fungal or bacterial grains from infected lesions through microscopic examination of potassium hydroxide mounts, staining techniques,
This document provides an overview of systemic and opportunistic mycoses. It defines systemic mycoses as deep fungal infections caused by soil-dwelling dimorphic fungi that are accidentally inhaled. The main causative agents described are Blastomyces dermatitidis, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Coccidioides immitis, and Histoplasma capsulatum. Opportunistic mycoses occur in immunocompromised individuals and the most common causes are Candida species, Aspergillus species, and Cryptococcus neoformans. Key clinical features, laboratory diagnostics including microscopy, culture, and serology, treatment approaches, and important epidemiological details are summarized
1. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are caused by microbial invasion of the urinary tract from the kidneys to the urethra. E. coli is the most common causative organism, followed by other gram-negative bacilli and some gram-positive organisms.
2. Laboratory diagnosis of UTIs involves urine microscopy to identify white and red blood cells and bacteria, culture to isolate and quantify bacterial growth, and antibiotic susceptibility testing to determine the most effective antibiotic treatment.
3. A significant bacterial count of ≥105 CFU/ml indicates an active UTI, while lower counts may be considered contaminated. Identification of bacterial isolates is done through colony characteristics, gram stain, and biochemical tests
Insects as microbial habitats
Insects are the most abundant class of animals living today, there are about over one million spp. are known.
20 % of insects support the symbiotic m’orgs.
This symbiotic association provides nutritional advantages or protection.
These symbionts found on the insect surface or in their digestive tracts.
Endosymbionts – intracellular bacteria localized to specialized organs within the insect.
Symbionts of insects
Types of heritable symbionts
Heritable symbionts are obligate symbionts becoz they lack free-living replicative stage.
Bacteria requires host for replication.
Insect symbionts
Aphid – Buchnera aphidicola (γ proteobacterium)
Mealybugs (Planococcus citri) – Betaproteobacterium
Termites - Protozoan
The flagellated protozoa Trichonympha live in the gut of termites & wood roaches
1) The document discusses different types of fungal spores, including sexual spores (ascospores, zygospores, basidiospores) and asexual spores (blastospores, arthrospores, chlamydospores, conidiospores).
2) It describes different types of superficial fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails, known as dermatophytoses or ringworm, which are caused by dermatophyte fungi of the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton.
3) Key characteristics are provided for diagnosing dermatophyte infections microscopically and through fungal culture techniques.
This document summarizes methods for isolating, cultivating, and identifying animal viruses. It discusses three main methods: (1) in living animals by injecting viral preparations and observing immune responses, (2) in embryonated eggs by inoculating viral suspensions and observing embryo death or defects, and (3) using cell culture by growing isolated cells and detecting cytopathic effect through plaque assays or microscopy. Identification methods discussed include PCR, RFLP, Western blot, and ELISA.
This document discusses subcutaneous mycoses, including mycetoma, sporotrichosis, and botryomycosis. It provides details on the causative agents, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment of each condition. Mycetoma is characterized by tumor-like lesions with draining sinuses and grains discharged from the skin. The causative organisms of mycetoma and actinomycetoma can be identified by examining the grains. Sporotrichosis typically presents as a chancre and lymphangitis following skin inoculation by Sporothrix schenckii. Botryomycosis is a chronic infection characterized by grape-like clusters of bacteria in subcutaneous tissue.
Papovaviruses are a family of small, non-enveloped viruses with circular double-stranded DNA genomes. The family includes the genera Papillomavirus and Polyomavirus. Papillomaviruses can cause warts and some strains are associated with cancers like cervical cancer. Polyomaviruses can cause diseases in immunocompromised individuals like progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Both viruses establish latent, lifelong infections and have oncogenic properties through viral proteins that interact with host cell growth regulators.
Viral infections can be diagnosed through serology, virus isolation, or direct demonstration of the virus. Serology detects virus antibodies through tests like ELISA, RIA, complement fixation, immunofluorescence, and neutralization. Virus isolation involves culturing patient samples in tissue culture or laboratory animals to detect viral growth. Direct demonstration identifies the virus or its antigens in patient samples using techniques like immunofluorescence, electron microscopy, probes, or by finding inclusion bodies in infected cells.
This document discusses schistosomiasis (bilharzia), a parasitic disease caused by blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. It outlines the classification of schistosomes, their life cycle involving snail intermediate hosts, symptoms, treatment with praziquantel, and global distribution. It notes that over 250 million people are infected worldwide. The document also discusses how global warming may expand the habitat and transmission of schistosomiasis by increasing temperatures in regions previously too cold for the parasite and snail hosts to survive.
This document provides information on various bacterial pathogens, including Campylobacter, Helicobacter pylori, Legionella, and Listeria monocytogenes. It discusses their epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment. Key points include that Campylobacter is a common cause of foodborne diarrhea, H. pylori is associated with peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer, Legionella causes pneumonia through inhalation of contaminated water droplets, and Listeria primarily infects newborns, pregnant women, and immunocompromised individuals through contaminated foods.
Superficial mycoses are cosmetic fungal infections of the skin or hair shaft that do not invade living tissue or cause cellular response. This document discusses several types of superficial mycoses including tinea versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur presenting as hyperpigmented lesions, tinea nigra caused by Exophiala werneckii presenting as brown to black lesions, and white and black piedra involving Trichosporon beigelii and Piedraia hortae forming nodules on hair. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination of skin or hair samples and treatment includes antifungal agents.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for a course on medical mycology and virology. The course is divided into 6 units that cover topics such as the taxonomy and characteristics of medically important fungi, fungal infections like candidiasis and aspergillosis, classification of viruses, and techniques for viral diagnosis including PCR and DNA sequencing. The objectives of the course are for students to learn how to perform diagnostic tests to identify fungi. Learning outcomes include understanding the world of microbes like fungi and their adaptive strategies, as well as their economic and pathological importance.
The document provides information on mycology including the classification, morphology, and laboratory diagnosis of fungi. It describes the characteristics of fungi, including their eukaryotic nature and ability to exist in both yeast and mold forms. The document also outlines the different types of fungal infections including cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic, and opportunistic mycoses.
This document discusses laboratory diagnosis of viral diseases. It describes various methods used for direct detection of viruses from specimens including electron microscopy, fluorescent microscopy, and light microscopy. It also discusses detection of viral antigens and antibodies. Molecular methods like PCR and virus isolation techniques including cell culture are explained. Specimen collection guidelines and various specimen types are provided.
1. Superficial mycoses involve infections of the skin and its appendages by fungi including Malassezia species, dermatophytes, and others.
2. Common conditions include pityriasis versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur presenting as discolored patches, and tinea infections like tinea corporis caused by dermatophytes appearing as scaly rings.
3. Laboratory diagnosis involves potassium hydroxide microscopy of skin and nail samples to visualize fungal elements, and culture to isolate and identify the causative agent. Topical and oral antifungal drugs are used for treatment.
This document discusses systemic mycoses, which are fungal infections that spread throughout the body via the bloodstream and affect multiple internal organs. It describes two main types - those caused by primary pathogens that usually originate in the lungs, and those caused by opportunistic pathogens that take advantage of immune deficiencies. Several specific fungal diseases are examined, including histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, penicilliosis, candidiasis, aspergillosis, cryptococcosis, and zygomycosis. The document outlines symptoms, treatment options, and risk factors for developing systemic mycoses.
Sporotrichosis is a chronic fungal infection caused by Sporothrix schenckii, which most commonly affects horses. It is transmitted through contact with contaminated soil or infected animals. The disease presents as cutaneous, lymphatic, or systemic forms, causing nodules and ulcers on the skin and lymph nodes. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination of samples to identify the characteristic cigar-shaped fungus. Treatment consists of antifungal medications like itraconazole administered systemically or locally at lesion sites. Control relies on proper wound treatment, hygiene, and isolation of infected animals.
There are over 200 known species of mycoplasmas, which are the smallest self-replicating organisms. Four species commonly infect humans and cause respiratory or genitourinary infections: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, and Mycoplasma genitalium. Mycoplasmas lack cell walls and have pleomorphic shapes. They are difficult to study using typical bacteriological methods but can be grown in cell-free media supplemented with sterols. Mycoplasmas attach to and may directly damage host cells, leading to pathogenic effects. Tetracyclines and erythromycins are commonly used for treatment.
The BIOCOMES project involves 27 partners developing 11 biological control products, including a seed treatment using the fungus Trichoderma harzianum to control Fusarium head blight in wheat and pink ear rot in maize. Laboratory and greenhouse studies showed Trichoderma has the potential to control these above-ground diseases when applied below-ground as a seed treatment. Field trials were conducted in multiple countries in 2016 and 2017 to validate Trichoderma's ability to reduce Fusarium disease symptoms and mycotoxin levels in wheat and maize crops under natural conditions.
This document discusses phage typing, which is a method used to characterize and detect differences between bacterial strains based on their susceptibility or resistance to various bacteriophages. Phage typing can be used to distinguish between strains that cause disease from harmless strains, and to trace the source of bacterial outbreaks. It involves observing the zones of clearing around spots of different bacteriophages to determine the susceptibility patterns and strain differences. Phage typing is commonly used in epidemiology to identify infectious agents like strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria, or Bacillus anthracis.
This document summarizes common fungal infections caused by dimorphic and opportunistic fungi. It lists endemic mycoses including paracoccidioidomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, and blastomycosis caused by fungi that exist in both mold and yeast forms. It also describes opportunistic mycoses including candidiasis, cryptococcosis, and aspergillosis caused by fungi that exist only in yeast or mold forms and primarily infect immunocompromised individuals. Key characteristics of each fungal species such as morphology, habitat, disease manifestations, diagnosis and treatment are provided.
1. Cutaneous mycoses are fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails caused by dermatophytes like Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Laboratory diagnosis involves microscopic examination of skin scrapings or nail clippings in KOH to identify fungal elements, as well as fungal culture.
2. Subcutaneous mycoses involve fungal infection of the subcutaneous tissue and overlying skin, such as mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis, sporotrichosis, and rhinosporidiosis. They are caused by a heterogeneous group of fungi introduced through the skin via minor trauma.
Primary metabolism produces compounds essential for growth like pyruvate and ethanol. Secondary metabolism functions are often unknown and produces specialized compounds in few species after growth stops. Examples of secondary metabolites include antibiotics like penicillin. Secondary metabolites are of interest for industries and their functions include antibiotics, pigments, and toxins. They are classified based on originating from amino acids, shikimic acid, polyketides, or mevalonic acid pathways. Penicillin biosynthesis relies on precursor amino acids from primary metabolism.
1) Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic substances produced by fungi that can contaminate foods like cereals, nuts, and spices.
2) Humans and animals are primarily exposed to aflatoxins through diet, but occupational exposure is also possible.
3) Aflatoxins like AFB1 are potent liver carcinogens that are metabolized and can form DNA adducts, causing mutations that may lead to liver cancer. Exposure to high doses can cause acute toxicity while long term low exposure risks chronic effects like immune suppression.
Insects as microbial habitats
Insects are the most abundant class of animals living today, there are about over one million spp. are known.
20 % of insects support the symbiotic m’orgs.
This symbiotic association provides nutritional advantages or protection.
These symbionts found on the insect surface or in their digestive tracts.
Endosymbionts – intracellular bacteria localized to specialized organs within the insect.
Symbionts of insects
Types of heritable symbionts
Heritable symbionts are obligate symbionts becoz they lack free-living replicative stage.
Bacteria requires host for replication.
Insect symbionts
Aphid – Buchnera aphidicola (γ proteobacterium)
Mealybugs (Planococcus citri) – Betaproteobacterium
Termites - Protozoan
The flagellated protozoa Trichonympha live in the gut of termites & wood roaches
1) The document discusses different types of fungal spores, including sexual spores (ascospores, zygospores, basidiospores) and asexual spores (blastospores, arthrospores, chlamydospores, conidiospores).
2) It describes different types of superficial fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails, known as dermatophytoses or ringworm, which are caused by dermatophyte fungi of the genera Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton.
3) Key characteristics are provided for diagnosing dermatophyte infections microscopically and through fungal culture techniques.
This document summarizes methods for isolating, cultivating, and identifying animal viruses. It discusses three main methods: (1) in living animals by injecting viral preparations and observing immune responses, (2) in embryonated eggs by inoculating viral suspensions and observing embryo death or defects, and (3) using cell culture by growing isolated cells and detecting cytopathic effect through plaque assays or microscopy. Identification methods discussed include PCR, RFLP, Western blot, and ELISA.
This document discusses subcutaneous mycoses, including mycetoma, sporotrichosis, and botryomycosis. It provides details on the causative agents, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment of each condition. Mycetoma is characterized by tumor-like lesions with draining sinuses and grains discharged from the skin. The causative organisms of mycetoma and actinomycetoma can be identified by examining the grains. Sporotrichosis typically presents as a chancre and lymphangitis following skin inoculation by Sporothrix schenckii. Botryomycosis is a chronic infection characterized by grape-like clusters of bacteria in subcutaneous tissue.
Papovaviruses are a family of small, non-enveloped viruses with circular double-stranded DNA genomes. The family includes the genera Papillomavirus and Polyomavirus. Papillomaviruses can cause warts and some strains are associated with cancers like cervical cancer. Polyomaviruses can cause diseases in immunocompromised individuals like progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Both viruses establish latent, lifelong infections and have oncogenic properties through viral proteins that interact with host cell growth regulators.
Viral infections can be diagnosed through serology, virus isolation, or direct demonstration of the virus. Serology detects virus antibodies through tests like ELISA, RIA, complement fixation, immunofluorescence, and neutralization. Virus isolation involves culturing patient samples in tissue culture or laboratory animals to detect viral growth. Direct demonstration identifies the virus or its antigens in patient samples using techniques like immunofluorescence, electron microscopy, probes, or by finding inclusion bodies in infected cells.
This document discusses schistosomiasis (bilharzia), a parasitic disease caused by blood flukes of the genus Schistosoma. It outlines the classification of schistosomes, their life cycle involving snail intermediate hosts, symptoms, treatment with praziquantel, and global distribution. It notes that over 250 million people are infected worldwide. The document also discusses how global warming may expand the habitat and transmission of schistosomiasis by increasing temperatures in regions previously too cold for the parasite and snail hosts to survive.
This document provides information on various bacterial pathogens, including Campylobacter, Helicobacter pylori, Legionella, and Listeria monocytogenes. It discusses their epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, laboratory diagnosis, and treatment. Key points include that Campylobacter is a common cause of foodborne diarrhea, H. pylori is associated with peptic ulcer disease and gastric cancer, Legionella causes pneumonia through inhalation of contaminated water droplets, and Listeria primarily infects newborns, pregnant women, and immunocompromised individuals through contaminated foods.
Superficial mycoses are cosmetic fungal infections of the skin or hair shaft that do not invade living tissue or cause cellular response. This document discusses several types of superficial mycoses including tinea versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur presenting as hyperpigmented lesions, tinea nigra caused by Exophiala werneckii presenting as brown to black lesions, and white and black piedra involving Trichosporon beigelii and Piedraia hortae forming nodules on hair. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination of skin or hair samples and treatment includes antifungal agents.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for a course on medical mycology and virology. The course is divided into 6 units that cover topics such as the taxonomy and characteristics of medically important fungi, fungal infections like candidiasis and aspergillosis, classification of viruses, and techniques for viral diagnosis including PCR and DNA sequencing. The objectives of the course are for students to learn how to perform diagnostic tests to identify fungi. Learning outcomes include understanding the world of microbes like fungi and their adaptive strategies, as well as their economic and pathological importance.
The document provides information on mycology including the classification, morphology, and laboratory diagnosis of fungi. It describes the characteristics of fungi, including their eukaryotic nature and ability to exist in both yeast and mold forms. The document also outlines the different types of fungal infections including cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic, and opportunistic mycoses.
This document discusses laboratory diagnosis of viral diseases. It describes various methods used for direct detection of viruses from specimens including electron microscopy, fluorescent microscopy, and light microscopy. It also discusses detection of viral antigens and antibodies. Molecular methods like PCR and virus isolation techniques including cell culture are explained. Specimen collection guidelines and various specimen types are provided.
1. Superficial mycoses involve infections of the skin and its appendages by fungi including Malassezia species, dermatophytes, and others.
2. Common conditions include pityriasis versicolor caused by Malassezia furfur presenting as discolored patches, and tinea infections like tinea corporis caused by dermatophytes appearing as scaly rings.
3. Laboratory diagnosis involves potassium hydroxide microscopy of skin and nail samples to visualize fungal elements, and culture to isolate and identify the causative agent. Topical and oral antifungal drugs are used for treatment.
This document discusses systemic mycoses, which are fungal infections that spread throughout the body via the bloodstream and affect multiple internal organs. It describes two main types - those caused by primary pathogens that usually originate in the lungs, and those caused by opportunistic pathogens that take advantage of immune deficiencies. Several specific fungal diseases are examined, including histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, penicilliosis, candidiasis, aspergillosis, cryptococcosis, and zygomycosis. The document outlines symptoms, treatment options, and risk factors for developing systemic mycoses.
Sporotrichosis is a chronic fungal infection caused by Sporothrix schenckii, which most commonly affects horses. It is transmitted through contact with contaminated soil or infected animals. The disease presents as cutaneous, lymphatic, or systemic forms, causing nodules and ulcers on the skin and lymph nodes. Diagnosis involves microscopic examination of samples to identify the characteristic cigar-shaped fungus. Treatment consists of antifungal medications like itraconazole administered systemically or locally at lesion sites. Control relies on proper wound treatment, hygiene, and isolation of infected animals.
There are over 200 known species of mycoplasmas, which are the smallest self-replicating organisms. Four species commonly infect humans and cause respiratory or genitourinary infections: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Mycoplasma hominis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, and Mycoplasma genitalium. Mycoplasmas lack cell walls and have pleomorphic shapes. They are difficult to study using typical bacteriological methods but can be grown in cell-free media supplemented with sterols. Mycoplasmas attach to and may directly damage host cells, leading to pathogenic effects. Tetracyclines and erythromycins are commonly used for treatment.
The BIOCOMES project involves 27 partners developing 11 biological control products, including a seed treatment using the fungus Trichoderma harzianum to control Fusarium head blight in wheat and pink ear rot in maize. Laboratory and greenhouse studies showed Trichoderma has the potential to control these above-ground diseases when applied below-ground as a seed treatment. Field trials were conducted in multiple countries in 2016 and 2017 to validate Trichoderma's ability to reduce Fusarium disease symptoms and mycotoxin levels in wheat and maize crops under natural conditions.
This document discusses phage typing, which is a method used to characterize and detect differences between bacterial strains based on their susceptibility or resistance to various bacteriophages. Phage typing can be used to distinguish between strains that cause disease from harmless strains, and to trace the source of bacterial outbreaks. It involves observing the zones of clearing around spots of different bacteriophages to determine the susceptibility patterns and strain differences. Phage typing is commonly used in epidemiology to identify infectious agents like strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria, or Bacillus anthracis.
This document summarizes common fungal infections caused by dimorphic and opportunistic fungi. It lists endemic mycoses including paracoccidioidomycosis, coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, and blastomycosis caused by fungi that exist in both mold and yeast forms. It also describes opportunistic mycoses including candidiasis, cryptococcosis, and aspergillosis caused by fungi that exist only in yeast or mold forms and primarily infect immunocompromised individuals. Key characteristics of each fungal species such as morphology, habitat, disease manifestations, diagnosis and treatment are provided.
1. Cutaneous mycoses are fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails caused by dermatophytes like Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Laboratory diagnosis involves microscopic examination of skin scrapings or nail clippings in KOH to identify fungal elements, as well as fungal culture.
2. Subcutaneous mycoses involve fungal infection of the subcutaneous tissue and overlying skin, such as mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis, sporotrichosis, and rhinosporidiosis. They are caused by a heterogeneous group of fungi introduced through the skin via minor trauma.
Primary metabolism produces compounds essential for growth like pyruvate and ethanol. Secondary metabolism functions are often unknown and produces specialized compounds in few species after growth stops. Examples of secondary metabolites include antibiotics like penicillin. Secondary metabolites are of interest for industries and their functions include antibiotics, pigments, and toxins. They are classified based on originating from amino acids, shikimic acid, polyketides, or mevalonic acid pathways. Penicillin biosynthesis relies on precursor amino acids from primary metabolism.
1) Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic substances produced by fungi that can contaminate foods like cereals, nuts, and spices.
2) Humans and animals are primarily exposed to aflatoxins through diet, but occupational exposure is also possible.
3) Aflatoxins like AFB1 are potent liver carcinogens that are metabolized and can form DNA adducts, causing mutations that may lead to liver cancer. Exposure to high doses can cause acute toxicity while long term low exposure risks chronic effects like immune suppression.
This document summarizes different types of mycoses (fungal infections). It discusses four categories: superficial mycoses, cutaneous mycoses, subcutaneous mycoses, and subcutaneous zygomycoses. For each type, it provides the causative organisms, clinical symptoms, methods of diagnosis, and common treatments. The document primarily focuses on describing the characteristic features of different fungal infections for identification and management purposes.
Primary metabolism refers to the metabolic processes important for fungal growth in culture. These include carbon and energy metabolism like glycolysis and fermentation. Glycolysis breaks down glucose through various pathways to extract energy. Fermentation regenerates NAD+ by transferring electrons from NADH to an organic acceptor like pyruvate. Respiration also generates ATP through the citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. Fungi vary in their ability to respire and ferment aerobically or anaerobically. Other pathways degrade amino acids and nucleic acids or allow use of non-carbohydrate carbon sources through gluconeogenesis.
Syed Hussain Shah's presentation topic is on mycosis, or fungal infections. Mycosis is caused by fungi like Aspergillus, Histoplasma, and other pathogenic fungi. Those at risk include people with weakened immune systems from HIV/AIDS, steroid use, chemotherapy, or diabetes. Mycoses are classified by the tissue initially infected, such as superficial infections of the outer skin/hair, cutaneous infections deeper in the skin/nails, subcutaneous infections of the dermis and muscles, and systemic infections originating in the lungs or from opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised individuals. Prevention methods include keeping skin clean and dry, maintaining good hygiene, and washing clothes after contact
1. Many plant pathogens produce toxins that play an important role in disease development and pathogenesis. Toxins can damage host plants and cause symptoms of disease.
2. Examples are given of historic plant disease outbreaks caused by toxin-producing fungi such as the Irish potato famine. Specific toxins like aflatoxin, trichothecenes, and fumonisins are discussed.
3. Plant pathogens employ diverse toxin strategies to weaken hosts including disrupting membranes, inhibiting amino acid and RNA synthesis, and mimicking plant signals. Understanding toxin function provides insights into host-pathogen interactions and ways to develop disease resistance.
Introduction to Mycology 2020 (2).pptxDawn Junkere
shows the different fungal infections human can be exposed to. how medical treatment can be carried out to treat
use of antofungals. the different parts of the fungus
This document provides an introduction to mycology, the study of fungi. It discusses the history of fungi being recognized as pathogens and outlines the key characteristics of fungi such as cell walls containing chitin. Fungi can be classified based on cell morphology into yeasts, molds, and dimorphic fungi. They can also be classified based on sexual reproduction into four classes. Common fungal infections like dermatophytosis and opportunistic infections are described. The document concludes by noting some useful properties of fungi such as food production and antibiotic production.
This document provides an overview of fungi. It discusses that fungi are eukaryotic organisms classified in the kingdom Fungi. They can exist as molds, yeasts, or dimorphic fungi. Fungi have cell walls containing chitin and reproduce asexually through spores or budding or sexually through the fusion of hyphae. The document outlines the morphological characteristics, differences from bacteria, classification systems based on cell structure and reproduction, and types of fungal infections like superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, and systemic mycoses.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include molds, yeasts and dermatophytes. They obtain nutrients through absorption and can reproduce both sexually through spores and asexually through budding or fragmentation. Fungal infections, or mycoses, are a major cause of disease in humans and include cutaneous, subcutaneous, systemic and opportunistic infections. Laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections involves microscopic examination, culture and other tests to identify the causative fungus.
mycology 12345.pptx development of mmmmmbbbbbsssssssssAnuragKumarKumar4
This document provides an overview of mycology, which is the study of fungi. It discusses the classification of fungi based on morphological forms, sporulation, type of infection, and site of infection. The key classifications described are yeasts, dimorphic fungi, and filamentous fungi. It also covers various fungal infections including superficial mycoses of the skin, subcutaneous mycoses, and systemic mycoses. Laboratory methods for fungal identification and diagnosis are mentioned such as microscopy, culture, and staining techniques.
This document provides an overview of mycology, which is the study of fungi. It discusses the classification of fungi based on morphological forms, sporulation, type of infection, and site of infection. The key classifications described are yeasts, dimorphic fungi, and filamentous fungi. It also covers various fungal infections including superficial mycoses like tinea versicolor and tinea nigra, subcutaneous mycoses like mycetoma and sporotrichosis, and systemic mycoses. Laboratory methods for fungal identification and diagnosis are also mentioned such as microscopy, culture, and staining techniques.
The document discusses medical mycology, which is the study of pathogenic fungi that cause disease. It covers topics such as the classification of fungi, their modes of reproduction, pathogenesis of fungal infections, diagnosis of fungal diseases, and antifungal therapies. The major classes of antifungal drugs are discussed including polyenes, azoles, and echinocandins which act on the fungal cell membrane or cell wall.
This document discusses the study of fungi (mycology). It defines key terms like molds, yeasts, and describes the characteristics of fungi, including that they are eukaryotic and heterotrophic. It outlines the taxonomy and classifications of fungi, describes important saprophytic fungi and their characteristics, and discusses different types of fungal infections like superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, and systemic mycoses. It also covers dimorphic fungi that can exist in both mold and yeast forms and causes of common superficial and cutaneous fungal infections.
1. Darrell and his puppy Delbert both developed skin infections on their lips and muzzles after Darrell gave Delbert frequent kisses.
2. They likely contracted a zoophilic dermatophyte such as Microsporum canis from Delbert to Darrell via dog-to-human transmission.
3. The diagnosis would be made by examining skin and hair scrapings under a microscope after applying potassium hydroxide or calcofluor white.
This document provides an overview of mycology, which is the study of fungi. It discusses the classification, morphology, and types of fungal infections that affect the skin, nails, hair (dermatophytes), subcutaneous tissues, and internal organs/systems (systemic and opportunistic fungi). Common fungal infections discussed include dermatophytosis, tinea versicolor, tinea nigra, sporotrichosis, chromomycosis, mycetoma, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, and coccidioidomycosis. The document also covers the laboratory diagnosis and treatment of various mycoses. The lecture objectives are to describe the classification of fungal infections,
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can be single-celled or multicellular. Their cell walls contain chitin and glucans. Fungi can cause superficial infections of the skin and nails, subcutaneous infections beneath the skin, and systemic infections of internal organs. Common fungal diseases include ringworm, athlete's foot, histoplasmosis, and coccidiomycosis. Fungi are classified based on their modes of reproduction and microscopic structures. Identification and diagnosis involves microscopic examination, culturing, and serological tests.
This document discusses fungi. It begins by defining key terms like mycology and mycoses. It then describes the characteristics of fungi, including their eukaryotic nature and ability to withstand extreme conditions. The document outlines fungal structure, describing their cell walls, membranes, and both sexual and asexual reproduction. It also classified fungi into four main morphological groups: molds, yeasts, dimorphic fungi, and yeast-like fungi. The document concludes by discussing fungal pathogenesis, categorizing mycoses into superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, and systemic infections.
This document provides information about fungi and mycosis. It discusses that fungi are eukaryotic, aerobic organisms that can be saprophytic, symbiotic, or parasitic. Fungi can be beneficial in producing foods or antibiotics. The document classifies fungi taxonomically into phyla, classes including yeasts, molds and dimorphic fungi. It also describes laboratory diagnosis of fungi through microscopy and culture. Finally, it discusses different types of fungal infections that can affect the skin, subcutaneous tissues, internal organs, or be opportunistic.
Fungal Infections/ Mycoses ppt by Dr.C.P.PRINCEDR.PRINCE C P
PPT prepared by :
DR.PRINCE C P
Associate Professor &HOD
Department of Microbiology,
Mother Theresa Post Graduate & Research Institute of Health Sciences (Government of Puducherry Institution)
According to tissue involved, MYCOSES are classified into:
Superficial (Surface )
Cutaneous
Subcutaneous
Deep Cutaneous
Systemic (Primary )
Systemic ( Opportunistic)
Mycotic Poisoning
most of the fungal infections are opportunistic in nature.
candida albicans is the common Fungal pathogen.
Presenattion 02 Class fungus and diseses.pptxRubab161509
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(10) Fungal Classification, Structure, and Replication.pptisamshafal
Fungi play an important role in nature by breaking down organic matter. They can live as saprophytes, symbionts, commensals, or parasites. Fungal infections are increasingly common due to rising immunocompromised populations. Fungi are classified into five main classes including Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Archiascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Deuteromycetes. They have cell walls containing chitin and glucan. Fungi can exist as yeasts or molds and reproduce sexually through spores or asexually. Common opportunistic fungal pathogens include species of Absidia, Rhizopus, Mucor,
This document provides an introduction to the topic of mycology. It discusses the key characteristics of fungi, including their eukaryotic nature and cell wall composition of chitin and glucan. Fungi can exist in either yeast or mold forms and many medically important fungi are dimorphic, being able to live in both forms. The document outlines different types of fungal infections and methods for diagnosis, including microscopic examination, serology, culture and nucleic acid probes.
This document provides an introduction to mycology and virology for public health second-year students. It defines key terms related to fungi and outlines the objectives, characteristics of fungi, medical importance of fungi, and types of fungal infections including superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, and systemic mycoses. Specific fungi that cause different types of infections are described along with their symptoms, transmission, and clinical presentation.
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The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
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1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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Classification of Fungi. Superficial Mycoses & Systemic Mycoses. Dermatophytes. Diagnosis of Mycoses
1. MEDICAL IMPORTANT FUNGI. GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC,
CLASSIFICATION. FUNGI, CAUSING SUPERFICIAL MYCOSES AND SYSTEMIC
MYCOSES. DERMATOPHYTES. LABORATORY DIAGNOSTICS OF MYCOSES.
THEORETICAL QUESTIONS:
1. General characteristics of the fungi: morphology, cultivation, mode of
multiplication, characteristics of the specialized cells.
2. Classification of the medical important fungi.
3. General characteristics of the fungal infections: mode of transmission, source of
infection, features of pathogenesis and methods of laboratory diagnostics.
4. Dermatophytoses: causative agents, clinical appearance, laboratory diagnostics,
immunity.
5. Deep mycoses: causative species, clinical forms, and laboratory diagnostics.
6. Opportunistic mycoses: causative species, clinical forms, and laboratory diagnostics
7. Antifungal therapy: common drugs, mode of administration according to type and
localization of infection.
Fungi are eukaryotic microorganisms. Fungi can occur as yeasts, molds, or as a
combination of both forms. Some fungi are capable of causing superficial, cutaneous,
subcutaneous, systemic or allergic diseases. Yeasts are microscopic fungi consisting of solitary
cells that reproduce by budding. Molds, in contrast, occur in long filaments known as hyphae,
which grow by apical extension. Hyphae can be sparsely septate to regularly septate and possess
a variable number of nuclei. Regardless of their shape or size, fungi are all heterotrophic and
digest their food externally by releasing hydrolytic enzymes into their immediate surroundings
(absorptive nutrition).
Fungi differ from bacteria in many ways:
1. They possess rigid cell wall containing chitin, mannan and other polysaccharides
2. Their CPM contains ergosterols
3. They have true nuclei with nuclear membrane and paired chromosomes
4. They may be unicellular and multicellular
5. Their cells show various degree of specialization
6. They divide asexually, sexually or by both processes
Fungi are divided due to their morphology into:
1. Yeasts (Cryptococcus neoformans) and yeast-like fungi (Candida sp.)
2. Moulds or filamentous fungi (Dermatophytes and opportunistic fungi such as Aspergillus,
Penicillum and Mucor)
3. Dimorphic fungi (causative agents of deep mycoses). They can occur as filaments or as
yeasts. In the host tissue or cultures at 370
C they occur as yeasts, while in the soil and in cultures
at 220
C they appear as moulds
Morphology of moulds: They have tubular structure called hypha. Hypha can either septate
(higher moulds) or nonseptate (lower fungi). Tangled mass of hyphae forms mycelium. In a
growing colony of moulds mycelium may be divided into the vegetative and aerial parts.
Moulds are multiplied by sexual and asexaul spores and by fragmentation of mycelium.
They form specialized cells (mycelial and for spore formation)
Taxonomy of fungi
Kingdom: Mycota (Fungi) Divisions: Eumycota (true fungi) and Myxomycota (mycous
fungi)
Classes: The systematic classification of fungi is based on their sexual spore formation
Fungi perfecti form both sexual and asexual spores: Chytridiomycetes,
Hyphochytridiomycetes, Oomycetes (produce sexual oospores and endogenous asexual spores
(sporangiospores), contained within swollen sac-like structures (sporangia).
2. Zygomycetes produce sexual zygospores into specific sac covered with spikes and asexual
sporangiospores into sporangium
Ascomycetes form sexual askospores into sac (ascus ) and exogenous asexual spores named
conidia
Basidiomycetes can form sexual basidiospores on a basidium or base and exogenous asexual
spores named conidia
Fungi inperfecti : Deuteromycetes or hyphomycetes. For this provisional group sexual
reproduction has not been estimated. They form exogenous and endogenous asexual spores
(micro- and macroconidia)
Cultivation of fungi. Fungi are aerobs or facultative anaerobs. They are cultivated on the special
media with glucose at pH 5.5-6.5. Nutrient media for fungi cultivation and isolation:
Sabouraud`s glucose agar (pH 5.4), Sabouraud`s glucose broth, Czapek-Dox medium,
cornmeal agar
Cultures are routinely incubated at room temperature (220
C) for weeks and at 370
C for day in the
same time.
Cultural characteristics: Yeast-like fungi and dimorphic fungi at 370
C form colonies,
resemble to bacterial ones: smooth, creamy, with entire edges, colored in white, beige, and
yellowish.
Filamentous fungi and dimorphic fungi at 220
C grow with formation fluffy, velvety colonies
with any color of reverse.
Deuteromycetes usually form powdery or cottony colonies, pigmented on reverse.
Fungi can use a number of different carbon sources to meet their carbon needs for the synthesis
of carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Oxidation of sugars, alcohols, proteins,
lipids, and polysaccharides provides them with a source of energy. Differences in their ability to
utilize different carbon sources, such as simple sugars, sugar acids, and sugar alcohols, are used,
along with morphology, to differentiate the various yeasts.
Morphology of mycelium elements (hyphae, spores, sporangiofores and conidiophores,
macroconidia) are important identification criteria for filamentous fungi (dermatomycetes and
moulds)
Resistance: Fungi are sensitive to heating (they are destroyed by boiling in a 15 min), acids (3-
7% acetic acid, 2-3% salicylic acid and benzoic acid), disinfectants (5% chloramines and
10% formaldehyde).
Fungi spores are relatively resistant to desiccation and UFR
Virulent factors of pathogenic fungi
1. Keratolytic and lipolytic enzymes of dermatophytes (lipase, keratinase, protease)
2. Allergens, provoking delayed type of hypersensitivity (all pathogens)
3. Capsule (some dimorphic fungi)
4. Exo- and endotoxins
Concepts of classification
Fungal infections may be classified according to the site of infection, route of acquisition, and
type of virulence. When classified according to the site of infection, fungal infections are
designated as superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous, and deep. Superficial mycoses are limited to
the stratum corneum and essentially elicit no inflammation. Cutaneous infections involve the
integument and its appendages, including hair and nails. Infection may involve the stratum
corneum or deeper layers of the epidermis. Inflammation of the skin is elicited by the organism
or its products. Subcutaneous mycoses include a range of different infections characterized by
infection of the subcutaneous tissues usually at the point of traumatic inoculation. An
inflammatory response develops in the subcutaneous tissue frequently with extension into the
epidermis. Deep mycoses involve the lungs, abdominal viscera, bones and or central nervous
system. The most common portals of entry are the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, and
blood vessels
3. When classified according to the route of acquisition, a fungal infection may be designated as
exogenous or endogenous in origin. If classified as exogenous, an infecting organism may be
transmitted by airborne, cutaneous, or percutaneous routes. An endogenously-acquired fungal
infection may be acquired from colonization or reactivation of a fungus from a latent infection.
Fungi may be classified also according to virulence, as primary pathogens or as
opportunistic pathogens. A primary pathogen may establish infection in an immunologically
normal host; whereas, an opportunistic pathogen requires some compromise of host defenses in
order for infection to become established.
Superficial mycoses
They are divided into:
1. Surface infections are caused by fungi living on the dead layers of the skin and hairs:
Tinea versicolor (Malasseizia furfur or Pytirosporum orbiculare). Pityriasis versicolor
is a common superficial mycosis, which is characterized by hypopigmentation or
hyperpigmentation of skin of the neck, shoulders, chest, and back. Pityriasis versicolor is due to
Malassezia furfur which involves only the superficial keratin layer.
Tinea nigra (Cladosporum Wernickii). Tinea nigra most typically presents as a brown to
black silver nitrate-like stain on the palm of the hand or sole of the foot.
Piedra (black piedra is caused by Piedraia hortae and white piedra is caused by
Trichosporum beigelii). Black piedra is a superficial mycosis due to Piedraia hortae which is
manifested by a small firm black nodule involving the hair shaft. By comparison, white piedra
due to T beigelii is characterized by a soft, friable, beige nodule of the distal ends of hair shafts.
2. Cutaneous infections (dermatomycoses and dermatophytoses) are provoked by fungi
affected deep layers of the skin, hairs and nails (spp. Trichophyton, Microsporum and
Epidermaphyton). Dermatophytoses are caused by the agents of the genera Epidermophyton,
Microsporum, and Trichophyton. Dermatomycoses are cutaneous infections due to other fungi,
the most common of which are Candida spp. The dermatophytoses are characterized by an
anatomic site-specificity according to genera. For example, Epidermophyton floccosum infects
only skin and nails, but does not infect hair shafts and follicles. Whereas, Microsporum spp.
infect hair and skin, but do not involve nails. Trichophyton spp. may infect hair, skin, and nails.
Subcutaneous mycoses
There are three general types of subcutaneous mycoses: chromoblastomycosis, mycetoma, and
sporotrichosis. All appear to be caused by traumatic inoculation of the etiological fungi into the
subcutaneous tissue. Fungi enter the subcutaneous tissue through minor trauma and cause
swelling lesions.
Productive type of inflammation is demonstrated in such lesions, including fungal cells.
1. Mycetoma (Madura foot, maduramycosis) is caused by actinomycetes or filamentous
fungi Mycetoma is a suppurative and granulomatous subcutaneous mycosis, which is destructive
of contiguous bone, tendon, and skeletal muscle. Mycetoma is characterized by the presence of
draining sinus tracts from which small but grossly visible pigmented grains or granules are
extruded. These grains are microcolonies of fungi causing the infection. Many of the fungi
causing mycetoma are pigmented brown to black. These organisms are known as dematiaceous
(melanized) fungi. The melanin pigment is deposited in the cell walls of these organisms. These
fungi may produce a range of infections from superficial to subcutaneous to deep (visceral)
infection characterized by the presence of dematiaceous hyphal and/or yeast-like cells in tissue.
Such deep infections due to dematiaceous fungi are termed phaeohyphomycosis.
2. Sporotrichosis (rose gardener`s disease) caused by Sporothrix schenkii .The infection
usually spreads along cutaneous lymphatic channels of the extremity involved.
3. Chromoblastomycosis caused by inhabiting fungi of the families Dematiaceae, genera
Fonsecaea (F.pedrosoi, F.dermatitidis), Phialophora (P.verrucosa) and Cladosporium
(C.carrionii). Chromoblastomycosis is a subcutaneous mycosis characterized by verrucoid
lesions of the skin (usually of the lower extremities); histological examination reveals muriform
4. cells (with perpendicular septations) or so-called "copper pennies" that are characteristic of this
infection. Chromoblastomycosis is generally limited to the subcutaneous tissue with no
involvement of bone, tendon, or muscle.
Chromoblastomycosis and mycetoma are caused by only certain fungi. The most common causes
of chromoblastomycosis are Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Fonsecaea compacta, Cladosporium carionii,
and Phialophora verrucosa. The causes of mycetoma are more diverse but can be classified as
eumycotic and actinomycotic mycetoma.
Fungi, causing deep mycoses
They infect inner organs (lungs, meningeal envelopes, parenchymal organs, lymph nodes and
other organs). Major species causing deep mycosis: Blastomyces dermatitidis, Paracoccidioides
brasiliensis, Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma capsulatum.
Deep mycoses are caused by primary pathogenic and opportunistic fungal pathogens. The
primary pathogenic fungi are able to establish infection in a normal host; whereas, opportunistic
pathogens require a compromised host in order to establish infection (e.g., cancer, organ
transplantation, surgery, and AIDS). The primary deep pathogens usually gain access to the host
via the respiratory tract. Opportunistic fungi causing deep mycosis invade via the respiratory
tract, alimentary tract, or intravascular devices.
The primary systemic fungal pathogens include Coccidioides immitis, Histoplasma capsulatum,
Blastomyces dermatitidis, and Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. The opportunistic fungal pathogens
include Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicillium marneffei, the
Zygomycetes, Trichosporon beigelii, and Fusarium spp.
Fungal dimorphism is the morphological and physiological conversion of certain fungi from one
phenotype to another when such fungi change from one environment to another. Dimorphic
fungi include C immitis, H capsulatum, B dermatitidis, P brasiliensis, P marneffei, and S
schenckii, and certain opportunistic fungi such as Candida albicans and Penicillium marneffei.
Various environmental host factors control fungal dimorphism. These factors include amino
acids, temperature, carbohydrates, and trace elements (e.g. zinc). Among the primary pathogens
and S schenckii, the morphological transformation is from a hyphal form to a yeast-like form (or
spherule in the case of C immitis) in tissue. However, the dimorphism of Candida albicans is
somewhat different in that the organism transforms from a budding yeast-like structures
(blastoconidia) to filamentous structures known as germ tubes. Other filamentous structures may
later develop as pseudohyphae and hyphae. Penicillium marneffei is unique in being the only
Penicillium species pathogenic to humans. It undergoes dimorphic conversion in vivo to
transversely dividing sausage-shaped cells.
Most cases of primary deep mycoses are asymptomatic or clinically mild infections occurring in
normal patients living or traveling in endemic areas. However, patients exposed to a high
inoculum of organisms or those with altered host defenses may suffer life-threatening
progression or reactivation of latent foci of infection.
Coccidioides immitis is also dimorphic, but its parasitic phase is a spherule. Little is known about
the role of morphologic transformation in infection and disease of this organism. Dimorphism
does not appear to play a role in C neoformans pathogenesis since the organism is an
encapsulated yeast both at 25°C and in host tissues.
The arthroconidia of C immitis are inhaled and convert in the lung to spherules. The spherule is
segmented into peripheral compartments with a persistent central cavity. Uninucleate endospores
occurring in packets enclosed by a thin membranous layer differentiate within the compartments.
As the endospores enlarge and mature, the wall of the spherule ruptures to release the endospores
. Most cases of coccidioidomycosis are clinically occult or mild infections in patients who inhale
infective arthroconidia. However, some patients have progressive pulmonary infection and also
may suffer dissemination to the brain, bone, and other sites. Coccidioides meningitis is a life-
threatening infection requiring lifelong treatment.
5. Histoplasmosis is a primary pulmonary infection resulting from inhalation of conidia of
Histoplasma capsulatum which convert in vivo into the blastoconidial (budding yeast) form.
Dissemination to the hilar and mediastinal lymph nodes, spleen, liver, bone marrow, and brain
may be life-threatening in infants and other immunocompromised patients. Histoplasmosis (like
tuberculosis) is characterized by intracellular growth of the pathogen in macrophages and a
granulomatous reaction in tissue. These granulomatous foci may reactivate and cause
dissemination of fungi to other tissues. These patterns of primary infection and reactivation are
similar to those of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Histoplasmosis also may be associated with a
chronic inflammatory process known as fibrosing mediastinitis, where scar tissue (formed in
response to H capsulatum) encroaches on vital structures in the mediastinum.
The conversion of the mycelial form of Blastomyces dermatitidis to the large, globose, thick-
walled, broadly based budding yeast form requires only increased temperature. Hyphal cells
enlarge and undergo a series of changes resulting in the transformation of these cells into yeast
cells. The cells enlarge, separate, and then begin to reproduce by budding.
Blastomycosis, similar to histoplasmosis, is a primary pulmonary infection resulting from
inhalation of conidia from the mycelial phase of Blastomyces dermatitidis which convert in vivo
to the parasitic yeast phase. Blastomycosis (due to B dermatitidis) in the blastoconidial phase
also causes a primary pulmonary infection. The organism elicits a granulomatous reaction often
associated with a marked fibrotic reaction. The clinical pattern of pulmonary blastomycosis is
one of chronic pneumonia. Dissemination occurs most commonly to the skin, bone, and, in
males, prostate.
Opportunistic systemic mycoses
They are caused by saprophytic filamentous and yeast-like fungi. In debilitated persons these
fungi can cause severe, even fatal infections of the lungs and other visceral organs.The most
usual agents:
1. Aspergillus spp. (pulmonary aspergillosis)
2. Penicillum spp. (penicillosis)
3. Rhizopus spp. and Mucor spp.(Mucormycosis)
4. Candida spp. (visceral candidosis)
5. Cryptococcus neoformans
Aspergillosis. Invasive aspergillosis most frequently involves the lungs and paranasal sinuses.
This fungus may disseminate from the lungs to involve the brain, kidneys, liver, heart, and
bones. The main portal of entry for aspergillosis is the respiratory tract, however, injuries to the
skin may also introduce the organism into susceptible hosts.
Zygomycosis. Zygomycosis due to Rhizopus, Rhizomucor, Absidia, Mucor species, or other
members of the class of Zygomycetes, also causes invasive sinopulmonary infections. An
especially life-threatening form of zygomycosis (also known as mucormycosis), is known as the
rhinocerebral syndrome, which occurs in diabetics with ketoacidosis. In addition to diabetic
ketoacidosis, neutropenia and corticosteroids are other major risk factors for zygomycosis.
Aspergillus spp and the Zygomycetes have a strong propensity for invading blood vessels.
Cryptococcosis. Cryptococcosis is most typically an opportunistic fungal infection that most
frequently causes pneumonia and/or meningitis. Defective cellular immunity, especially that
associated with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome, is the most common risk factor for
developing cryptococcosis.
Laboratory diagnostics
Fungal diseases may be diagnosed with:
1. Microscopy of material from lesions. Tissue specimens, such as skin scrapings, hairs and
nail scales, are examined as wet mounts after treatment with 10% potassium hydroxide. The
alkali digests keratin that is allowed to see fungal cells clearly.
2. Culture method
6. Identification is generally based on morphology of mycelia cells, and on biochemical properties
(yeast-like fungi)
3. Serological method
It is generally used for diagnosis of deep or visceral mycoses. Antifungal antibody is detected
with agglutination test, CFT, PHAT
4. Allergic skin tests
Laboratory diagnostics of deep and opportunistic mycoses is based onto culture and serological
method. Sometimes microscopy of native material (biopsy sample, sputum, CSF etc.) allows to
make a presumptive diagnosis.
Dermatomycoses
Dermatomycoses are caused by about 40 species of deuteromycetes belonged to genera:
Trichophyton
Microsporum
Epidermophyton
Differentiation of fungi into three genera are mainly based on the morphology of macroconidia
in the cultivated isolates (cylindrical macroconidia in Trichophyton, fusiform in Microsporum
and club shaped in Epidermophyton)
Epidemiology
Dermathophytes occur throughout the world. Depending on their natural habitat dermatophytes
may be classified as anthropophilic (T.rubrum, E.floccosum, M.audonii), zoophilic
(T.verrucosum, T.mentagrophytes, M.canis), geophilic (M.gypseum, T.ajelloi).
Human may be infected from animals, another human, and with soil
Immunity after disease is weak and short-term, hypersensitive state is formed during disease
Pathogenesis
Dermatophytes grow only on the keratinised layers of the skin and its appendages (hair, nail)
They cause local inflammation of the skin, hypersensitivity state and typical local lesions
(reddish scaled spots on the skin, destruction and blistering of the nail tissue, hair fragility)
They cause tinea (ringworm, lichen), clinically classified depending on the involving site:
1. Tinea corporis (T.rubrum and any other dermatophyte)
2. Tinea capitis (Microsporum any species and Trichophyton most species)
3. Tinea barbae or barber`s itch (T.rubrum, T.mentagrophytes, T.verrucosum)
4. Tinea cruris (E.flocossum, T.rubrum)
5. Tinea pedis or athletes` foot disease (T.interdigitalis, E.flocossum, T.rubrum)
6. Flavus (T.schoenleinii)
Laboratory diagnostics of dermatomycoses
1. Microscopy examination allows to reveal fungi elements in the lesions and to confirm
diagnosis “dermatophytoses”
Scrapings taken from the edges of ringworm lesions are treated with 10% KOH and microscopy
in wet mount. Microscopy allows to reveal thin septate mycelium (Microsporum), thick
branched septate hyphae (Trychophyton) or short branched septate hyphae (Epidermophyton)
Under microscopy of hair two types of hair infection may be revealed: “ectotrix” and “endotrix”
Ectotrix appears when arthrospores surround the hair as sheat
Endotrix is detected when arthrospores localize inside hair shaft
2. Culture method allows to identify causative agents according to their typical cultural
characteristics and microscopic examination of the mycelium cells (but it takes about 4-6 weeks)
3. Allergic skin tests with trychophytin is additional method of laboratory diagnostics
4. Exposure to UV light (Wood`s lamp) helps to diagnose hair infection. Infected by
Microsporum hair will be fluorescent
7. Differentiation of dermatophytes based on microscopy
Name of genes Microscopy
Microsporum species It is shown ectotrix at hair infection and typical morphology of pure
culture: chlamidospores, arthrospores, typical fusiform (spindle-like)
macroconidia
Epidermophyton spp. In the wet mount fungi appear as thick, short, septate mycelium.
Under microscopy of pure culture club-shaped macroconidia and
chlamidospores are demonstrated.
Trychophyton spp. There is endotrix with parallel rows of the arthrospores in the hair,
and there are cylindrical macroconidia, chlamido- and
arthrospores in the pure culture
Therapy of cutaneous fungal infection
They may be treated locally with antifungal medicines such as
1. Myconazole, bufanazole, ketokonazole, oxykonazole (imidazole preparations);
2. Tolnaftate, terbinafin, naftiridine (allilamine substances)
3. Antiseptics: antifungin, iodine preparations
4. Griseofulvin is used parenterally at resistant to therapy infections
II.Students practical activities:
1. Read the results of demonstrative CFT have been made with paired test sera taken
from patient with mucoromycosis. Make a conclusion
2. Draw the microscopy images of fungi, localized into hair. Indicate the differences
between Microsporum and Trichophyton infection.