1. Measurement involves assigning numbers to objects or observations based on established rules. There are different scales of measurement that determine what statistical analyses can be used.
2. The scales of measurement from least to most powerful are nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal scales simply categorize data while ratio scales have a true zero point and allow comparisons of ratios.
3. Each scale of measurement is associated with different statistical analyses that can appropriately be used. For example, only nominal data allows the use of the mode as a measure of central tendency while more powerful scales like interval and ratio allow the use of more sophisticated tests.
RESEARCH DESIGN , Sampling Designs , Dependent and Independent Variables, Extraneous Variables, Hypothesis, Exploratory Research Design, Descriptive and Diagnostic Research
caling is the branch of measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that associates qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units. Scaling evolved out of efforts in psychology and education to measure “unmeasurable” constructs like authoritarianism and self-esteem. In many ways, scaling remains one of the most arcane and misunderstood aspects of social research measurement. And, it attempts to do one of the most difficult of research tasks – measure abstract concepts.
Most people don’t even understand what scaling is. The basic idea of scaling is described in General Issues in Scaling, including the important distinction between a scale and a response format. Scales are generally divided into two broad categories: unidimensional and multidimensional. The unidimensional scaling methods were developed in the first half of the twentieth century and are generally named after their inventor. We’ll look at three types of unidimensional scaling methods here:
Thurstone or Equal-Appearing Interval Scaling
Likert or “Summative” Scaling
Guttman or “Cumulative” Scaling
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, measurement theorists developed more advanced techniques for creating multidimensional scales. Although these techniques are not considered here, you may want to look at the method of concept mapping that relies on that approach to see the power of these multivariate methods.
Methods of data collection (research methodology)Muhammed Konari
Included all types of data collection.Includes primary data collection and secondary data collection. Described each and every classification of Data collections which are included in KTU Kerala.
lecture 6 from a college level research methods in psychology course taught in the spring 2012 semester by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Linfield College, includes categorical, ordinal, interval, and ratio levels
RESEARCH DESIGN , Sampling Designs , Dependent and Independent Variables, Extraneous Variables, Hypothesis, Exploratory Research Design, Descriptive and Diagnostic Research
caling is the branch of measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that associates qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units. Scaling evolved out of efforts in psychology and education to measure “unmeasurable” constructs like authoritarianism and self-esteem. In many ways, scaling remains one of the most arcane and misunderstood aspects of social research measurement. And, it attempts to do one of the most difficult of research tasks – measure abstract concepts.
Most people don’t even understand what scaling is. The basic idea of scaling is described in General Issues in Scaling, including the important distinction between a scale and a response format. Scales are generally divided into two broad categories: unidimensional and multidimensional. The unidimensional scaling methods were developed in the first half of the twentieth century and are generally named after their inventor. We’ll look at three types of unidimensional scaling methods here:
Thurstone or Equal-Appearing Interval Scaling
Likert or “Summative” Scaling
Guttman or “Cumulative” Scaling
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, measurement theorists developed more advanced techniques for creating multidimensional scales. Although these techniques are not considered here, you may want to look at the method of concept mapping that relies on that approach to see the power of these multivariate methods.
Methods of data collection (research methodology)Muhammed Konari
Included all types of data collection.Includes primary data collection and secondary data collection. Described each and every classification of Data collections which are included in KTU Kerala.
lecture 6 from a college level research methods in psychology course taught in the spring 2012 semester by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Linfield College, includes categorical, ordinal, interval, and ratio levels
This was a presentation that was carried out in our research method class by our group. It will be useful for PHD and master students quantitative and qualitative method. It consist sample definition, purpose of sampling, stages in the selection of a sample, types of sampling in quantitative researches, types of sampling in qualitative researches, and ethical Considerations in Data Collection.
This presentation is on Measurement and it's scales. There are four different types of scales of measurement, namely, Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio
measurement and scaling is an important tool of research. by following the right and suitable scale will provide an appropriate result of research.this slide show will additionally provide the statistical testing for research measurement and scale.
Measurement is the process observing and recording the observations that are collected as part of a research effort.
Process of assigning numbers to objects or observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the numbers are assigned.
“convert the basic materials of the problem to data”
Levels of Measurement: Nominal = Data one collects when doing a wide-open descriptive or exploratory study, however, it is not limited to these kinds of studies. We can count this data, but we can’t order it. We need to be able to put this data into categories that are mutually exclusive, i.e. it can’t be in more than one category at a time. An example would be looking at age, race, sex, or some other type of data that you either are or aren’t. The categories need to be exhaustive – there need to be enough categories to cover the data you collect. Ordinal = this category has mutually exclusive categories, but with ordinal data you can order the data within each category. The ratings of poor, fair, good are an example of ordinal information. Note that you can order the ratings, but you can’t really tell how far apart each of these descriptors are from each other. You could also look at who finishes a task first, second, third, and so on. Again, you can rank this data, but you don’t know how much faster the first person was in relation to the second person or subsequent people. Interval-ratio data = this type of data allows you to measure the difference between each of your rankings. Data is ordered (as with ordinal data) and you can tell how much difference there is between each observation because there is a scale that is divided into equal units. You can measure a race with a stopwatch in terms of seconds or tenths of seconds. A thermometer gives you data with measurements in degrees. Ratio data is like interval data (and is often lumped together with it because they are usually handled the same way statistically). Its primary difference is that there is a zero point on the scale so that you can do multiplication and division. Money is an example of a ratio scale – two dollars are exactly twice one dollar. Volume, area, and distance measures are also ratio scales (2 times 1 liter equals 2 liters). This is different from a strict interval scale like a thermometer – we can’t say that 10 degrees Fahrenheit is twice as warm as 5 degrees Fahrenheit. Statistical Distributions: According to Shi, “a distribution organizes the values of a variable into categories. Frequency Distribution (aka Marginal Distribution): Displays the number of cases that falls into each category. Percentage Distribution: Found by dividing the number of frequency of cases in the category by the total N. Measures of Central Tendency: Mean: The most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. Median: It is defined as the middle position or midpoint of a distribution. Mode: Is defined as the most frequently occurring value. What is variability? Amount of spread or dispersion within a distribution of scores within a set of data. Measures of Variability: Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a distribution. Interquartile Range: Known as the ‘midspread’ or ‘middle fifty.” It contains the middle 50% of
Levels of Measurement: Nominal = Data one collects when doing a wide-open descriptive or exploratory study, however, it is not limited to these kinds of studies. We can count this data, but we can’t order it. We need to be able to put this data into categories that are mutually exclusive, i.e. it can’t be in more than one category at a time. An example would be looking at age, race, sex, or some other type of data that you either are or aren’t. The categories need to be exhaustive – there need to be enough categories to cover the data you collect. Ordinal = this category has mutually exclusive categories, but with ordinal data you can order the data within each category. The ratings of poor, fair, good are an example of ordinal information. Note that you can order the ratings, but you can’t really tell how far apart each of these descriptors are from each other. You could also look at who finishes a task first, second, third, and so on. Again, you can rank this data, but you don’t know how much faster the first person was in relation to the second person or subsequent people. Interval-ratio data = this type of data allows you to measure the difference between each of your rankings. Data is ordered (as with ordinal data) and you can tell how much difference there is between each observation because there is a scale that is divided into equal units. You can measure a race with a stopwatch in terms of seconds or tenths of seconds. A thermometer gives you data with measurements in degrees. Ratio data is like interval data (and is often lumped together with it because they are usually handled the same way statistically). Its primary difference is that there is a zero point on the scale so that you can do multiplication and division. Money is an example of a ratio scale – two dollars are exactly twice one dollar. Volume, area, and distance measures are also ratio scales (2 times 1 liter equals 2 liters). This is different from a strict interval scale like a thermometer – we can’t say that 10 degrees Fahrenheit is twice as warm as 5 degrees Fahrenheit. Statistical Distributions: According to Shi, “a distribution organizes the values of a variable into categories. Frequency Distribution (aka Marginal Distribution): Displays the number of cases that falls into each category. Percentage Distribution: Found by dividing the number of frequency of cases in the category by the total N. Measures of Central Tendency: Mean: The most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. Median: It is defined as the middle position or midpoint of a distribution. Mode: Is defined as the most frequently occurring value. What is variability? Amount of spread or dispersion within a distribution of scores within a set of data. Measures of Variability: Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values in a distribution. Interquartile Range: Known as the ‘midspread’ or ‘middle fifty.” It contains the middle 50% of
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
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2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
MARUTI SUZUKI- A Successful Joint Venture in India.pptx
Measurement in research
1. MEASUREMENT IN RESEARCH
In our daily life we are said to measure when we use some yardstick to
determine weight, height, or some other feature of a physical object. We
also measure when we judge how well we like a song, a painting or the
personalities of our friends. We, thus, measure physical objects as well
as abstract concepts. Measurement is a relatively complex and
demanding task, specially so when it concerns qualitative or abstract
phenomena. By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers
to objects or observations, the level of measurement being a function of
the rules under which the numbers are assigned.
2. MEASUREMENT SCALES
From what has been stated above, we can write that scales
of measurement can be considered in terms of their
mathematical properties. The most widely used
classification of measurement scales are:
1. nominal scale;
2. ordinal scale;
3. interval scale;
4. ratio scale.
3. 1. Nominal scale:
Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label
them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball players in
order to identify them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an
ordered scale for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels
for the particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal scales
provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events. One cannot do
much with the numbers involved. For example, one cannot usefully average the numbers
on the back of a group of football players and come up with a meaningful value. Neither
can one usefully compare the numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned
to another.
4. The counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation
when a nominal scale is employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as
the measure of central tendency. There is no generally used measure of dispersion
for nominal scales. Chi-square test is the most common test of statistical
significance that can be utilized, and for the measures of correlation, the
contingency coefficient can be worked out. Nominal scale is the least powerful
level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no
arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences between things by
assigning them to categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data. The scale
wastes any information that we may have about varying degrees of attitude, skills,
understandings, etc. In spite of all this, nominal scales are still very useful and are
widely used in surveys and other ex-post-facto research when data are being
classified by major sub-groups of the population.
5. 2. Ordinal scale:
The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal scale. The
ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the
scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are
frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his
graduation class involves the use of an ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in
making statement about scores based on ordinal scales. For instance, if Ram’s position
in his class is 10 and Mohan’s position is 40, it cannot be said that Ram’s position is
four times as good as that of Mohan. The statement would make no sense at all.
Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest. Ordinal
measures have no absolute values, and the real differences between adjacent ranks may
not be equal. All that can be said is that one person is higher or lower on the scale than
another, but more precise comparisons cannot be made.
6. Thus, the use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or
‘less than’ (an equality statement is also acceptable) without our being
able to state how much greater or less. The real difference between ranks
1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6.
Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the
appropriate measure of central tendency is the median. A percentile or
quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion. Correlations are
restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of statistical
significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
7. 3. Interval scale
In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of
some rule that has been established as a basis for making the units equal.
The units are equal only in so far as one accepts the assumptions on
which the rule is based. Interval scales can have an arbitrary zero, but it
is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute zero
or the unique origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the
lack of a true zero; it does not have the capacity to measure the complete
absence of a trait or characteristic. The Fahrenheit scale is an
example of an interval scale and shows similarities in what
one can and cannot do with it.
8. One can say that an increase in temperature from 30° to
40° involves the same increase in temperature as an increase
from 60° to 70°, but one cannot say that the temperature of
60° is twice as warm as the temperature of 30° because both
numbers are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is
set arbitrarily at the temperature of the freezing point of water.
The ratio of the two temperatures, 30° and 60°,,means nothing
because zero is an arbitrary point. Interval scales provide
more powerful measurement than ordinal scales for interval scale
also incorporates the concept of equality of interval.
9. As such more powerful statistical measures can be used
with interval scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of
central tendency, while standard deviation is the most widely
used measure of dispersion. Product moment correlation
techniques are appropriate and the generally used tests for
statistical significance are the ‘t’ test and ‘F’ test.
10. 4. Ratio scale
Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute
zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an
absolute zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time.
For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale indicates the complete absence
of length or height. But an absolute zero of temperature is theoretically
unobtainable and it remains a concept existing only in the scientist’s mind. The
number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of incorrect letters in a
page of type script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales have
absolute zeros and as such all minor traffic violations and all typing errors can be
assumed to be equal in significance.
11. With ratio scales involved one can make statements like “Jyoti’s” typing
performance was twice as good as that of “Reetu.” The ratio involved does
have significance and facilitates a kind of comparison which is not possible in
case of an interval scale. Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables.
Measures of physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are
examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio scales and
all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers can also be carried
out with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can be used with this
scale but not with other scales mentioned above. Geometric and harmonic
means can be used as measures of central tendency and coefficients of
variation may also be calculated.