The document discusses sampling and analysis methods from an environmental science perspective. It defines a sample as a subset of a population that is used to make inferences about the entire population. There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling which uses random selection, and non-probability sampling which does not use random selection. Some specific sampling methods discussed include random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. Ethical considerations for data collection like informed consent and confidentiality are also covered.

1. Department of
Department of Environmental Science
State University of Bangladesh
Masters in Environmental Science Program
ES 522: Environmental Analysis and Its
Interpretation
Lecture 4:
Sampling and Analysis of Results: An
Environmental Perspectives

2. Lecture Outline:
 What is Sample? How to define Sample from population?
 What is Sampling?
 Sampling in Research..
 Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

3. What is Sample?
 A sample is the group of people who take part in the investigation.
The people who take part are referred to as “participants”.
Population
Sample
A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of
units from a population used to determine truths about that
population” (Field, 2005)

4. How to define Sample Size from population?
The Statistical equation for defining the sample size:
n0= t2pq/d2
Where,
n0= the desired sample size (when population is greater than 10,000)
t= the standard normal deviate set at 1.96, which corresponds to the 95
percent confidence level (at P<0.05)
p= the proportion in the target population estimated to the prevalence
rate of violence and discrimination incidence (set at 60%)
q= 1.0 - p.
d= Degree of accuracy desired, set at .05
n= (1.96)2 x (.60)(.40)/(.05)2= 368
For adjustment of sample population, we can apply:
n
nc = -------------
1+n/N
Where, N =20,000
Then, the sample size = 361 =360

5. Generally, Sampling is the process of selecting participants from the
population.
What is Sampling?
The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such
a way that the individuals represent the larger group from which
they were selected
STUDY POPULATION
TARGET POPULATION
SAMPLE
SAMPLING…….

6. Sample and Sampling?

7. The purpose of sampling…
To gather data about the population in order to make an
inference that can be generalized to the population

8. Stages in the Selection of Sample…
Define the Target Population
Select a Sampling Frame
Determine Probability/Non Probability Sample
Plan Procedure for Selecting Sampling Units
Select Actual Sampling Units
Conduct Fieldwork
Determine Sample Size

9. Sampling in Research..
I. Probability Sampling
Sampling
II. Non-Probability Sampling
1. Random Sampling
2. Stratified Sampling
3. Systematic Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
2. Purposive sampling
3. Quota sampling
1. Convenience sampling
1. Sampling in Quantitative Research
4. Snowball sampling

10. 1. Random sampling
Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an equal and
independent chance of being selected
 Advantages
1. Easy to conduct
2. High probability of achieving a representative sample
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
 Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the population can be
difficult
2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
Continuation…

11. 2. Stratified Sampling
The population is divided into two or more groups called
strata, according to some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are
randomly selected from each strata.
 Advantages
 More accurate sample
 Can be used for both proportional and non-proportional samples
 Representation of subgroups in the sample
 Disadvantages
 Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
 Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
Continuation…

12. Continuation…

13. 3. Systematic sampling
Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the members of the
population
 Advantage
 Very easily done
 Disadvantages
 subgroups
 Some members of the population don’t have an equal chance of being
included
Continuation…
Example, to select a sample of 25 sample in your college dorm, makes a list of
all the student numbers in the classroom. For example there are 100 student,
divide the total number (N) of student (100) by the number of sample (n) you
want in the sample (25). The answer is 4. This means that you are going to
select every 4th student from the list of student in the classroom.

14. Continuation…
3. Cluster sampling
 The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals, within
the defined population sharing similar characteristics
 Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of the
population can be found
 Examples
 Neighborhoods
 School districts
 Schools
 Classrooms
Advantages
 Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large
geographic region
 Convenient and expedient
 Do not need the names of everyone in the population
 Disadvantages
 Representation is likely to become an issue

15. Example: Cluster Sampling
Note: Cluster samples are frequently utilized when no list of the sample
population are available.

16. Examples of Soil Sampling methods: Environmental Perspectives

17. 1. Convenience sampling
2. Purposive sampling
…called “judgment” sampling
3. Quota sampling
If the study has potential limited validity of results.
If the study needs equivalent numbers to enable equivalent
analysis and conclusions
Non-probability samples
4. Snowball sampling
A sampling procedure in which initial respondents are selected by probability
methods, and then additional respondents are obtained from information provided
by the initial respondent.

18. Sampling in Qualitative Research
Researchers in qualitative research select their participants
according to their :
1) characteristics
2) knowledge

20. Ethical Considerations in Data Collection
 It is the researcher’s ethical responsibility to safeguard the story
teller by maintaining the understood purpose of the research…
 The relationship should be based on trust between the researcher
and participants.
 Inform participants of the purpose of the study.
 Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity, using ethical interview
practices, maintaining privacy, and cooperating with participants.
 Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical issues to consider,
such as:
 reciprocity
 assessment of risk
 confidentiality,
 informed consent
 and data access and ownership.

21. Analysis of Results in Research

22. Contract:
Shankor Paul
E-mail: shankor.paul@gmail.com
Cell: 01712009028;
FB ID & LinkedIn: Shankor Paul; Skype: Shankor_Paul