This document discusses morphology and morphological parsing. It defines morphology as the study of how words are composed of morphemes, which are the smallest meaning-bearing units. There are two broad classes of morphology: inflectional morphology, which combines a stem and affix but results in a word of the same class, and derivational morphology, which typically results in a word of a different class. Morphological parsing involves breaking words down into their constituent morphemes. Finite state transducers can be used to represent morphological rules and perform parsing by mapping between a lexical level and surface form of words.
This document discusses English word and sentence structure. It covers morphology, the study of word forms and how words are constructed from morphemes. It defines different types of morphemes such as bound, free, root, stem, derivational, and inflectional morphemes. It also discusses affixes, grammatical morphemes, and the relationship between morphemes and words. The document analyzes how English words are formed through processes like derivation, compounding, acronyms, backformations, and other methods.
Morphology is the study of word forms and the rules for word formation. [1] It involves analyzing the internal structure of words and identifying morphemes. [2] A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning and can be a prefix, suffix, or root. [3] Morphemes combine in rule-governed ways to form words.
Morphology is the study of word forms and the rules for word formation. It examines the internal structure of words and how parts of words, called morphemes, combine to form new words. There are two main types of morphemes - bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes that must attach to other morphemes, and free morphemes that can stand alone as words. Studying morphology helps us understand where words come from, how new words are formed, and the mental lexicon of words we know. It also provides insight into how dictionaries are structured.
This 3-unit English course aims to improve the English proficiency of college freshmen. It will focus on grammar, vocabulary acquisition, and oral and written communication skills. Students will learn grammatical structures for functions like narrating and describing. Assessment includes exams, classwork, projects, and attendance. By the end of the course students will be able to utilize new vocabulary, apply grammar concepts, and produce cohesive written and oral discourse.
This document provides an introduction to linguistics and summarizes several key concepts and theories. It covers the main branches of linguistics like phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Some key topics discussed include morphemes, language acquisition theories, Chomsky's work on universal grammar, and the history and development of the English language. The document also defines several important linguistic terms and outlines different approaches to teaching English as a second language.
This document provides information about nouns, including the definition of a noun, the four main word classes, and different types of nouns such as common and proper nouns, countable and uncountable nouns, collective nouns, compound nouns, and plural noun rules. It discusses how to make nouns plural depending on their ending, including irregular plural nouns, and provides examples for each rule.
1. Word formation - Affixation - Conversion - Compounding - Clipping - Port Manteau -
Onomatopoeia - Loan words- other minor devices.
2. Patterns of spelling.
3. Phrasal verbs and prepositional phrases.
4. Sentence connectors -Devices for cohesion and coherence
This document discusses key concepts in lexicology and lexicography. It defines lexicology as the study of words and the lexicon, and lexicography as the cataloguing of words in dictionaries. Some key topics covered include what constitutes a word, morphology (word forms and elements), lexical semantics (word meanings), and how new words are created through processes like conversion, derivation and borrowing from other languages. The document also provides examples of affixes and how they can change word meanings in English.
This document discusses English word and sentence structure. It covers morphology, the study of word forms and how words are constructed from morphemes. It defines different types of morphemes such as bound, free, root, stem, derivational, and inflectional morphemes. It also discusses affixes, grammatical morphemes, and the relationship between morphemes and words. The document analyzes how English words are formed through processes like derivation, compounding, acronyms, backformations, and other methods.
Morphology is the study of word forms and the rules for word formation. [1] It involves analyzing the internal structure of words and identifying morphemes. [2] A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning and can be a prefix, suffix, or root. [3] Morphemes combine in rule-governed ways to form words.
Morphology is the study of word forms and the rules for word formation. It examines the internal structure of words and how parts of words, called morphemes, combine to form new words. There are two main types of morphemes - bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes that must attach to other morphemes, and free morphemes that can stand alone as words. Studying morphology helps us understand where words come from, how new words are formed, and the mental lexicon of words we know. It also provides insight into how dictionaries are structured.
This 3-unit English course aims to improve the English proficiency of college freshmen. It will focus on grammar, vocabulary acquisition, and oral and written communication skills. Students will learn grammatical structures for functions like narrating and describing. Assessment includes exams, classwork, projects, and attendance. By the end of the course students will be able to utilize new vocabulary, apply grammar concepts, and produce cohesive written and oral discourse.
This document provides an introduction to linguistics and summarizes several key concepts and theories. It covers the main branches of linguistics like phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Some key topics discussed include morphemes, language acquisition theories, Chomsky's work on universal grammar, and the history and development of the English language. The document also defines several important linguistic terms and outlines different approaches to teaching English as a second language.
This document provides information about nouns, including the definition of a noun, the four main word classes, and different types of nouns such as common and proper nouns, countable and uncountable nouns, collective nouns, compound nouns, and plural noun rules. It discusses how to make nouns plural depending on their ending, including irregular plural nouns, and provides examples for each rule.
1. Word formation - Affixation - Conversion - Compounding - Clipping - Port Manteau -
Onomatopoeia - Loan words- other minor devices.
2. Patterns of spelling.
3. Phrasal verbs and prepositional phrases.
4. Sentence connectors -Devices for cohesion and coherence
This document discusses key concepts in lexicology and lexicography. It defines lexicology as the study of words and the lexicon, and lexicography as the cataloguing of words in dictionaries. Some key topics covered include what constitutes a word, morphology (word forms and elements), lexical semantics (word meanings), and how new words are created through processes like conversion, derivation and borrowing from other languages. The document also provides examples of affixes and how they can change word meanings in English.
- Clitics are linguistic elements that are not full words but attach to other words. They cannot be stressed and do not cause the same morphological changes as prefixes or suffixes.
- In Spanish, clitic pronouns attach to the verb but do not change the stress pattern of the word. For example, "I am reading it" becomes "I'm reading it" when the clitic is added.
- The document discusses various tests and criteria for determining parts of speech based on distribution and morphology. However, it notes that some words defy strict categorization, and the distributional theory has limitations. Overall tests of contexts, affixation, and other changes help identify parts of speech but cannot account for all
Morphology is the study of word forms and the rules by which words are formed. There are several types of morphemes including bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes, free morphemes, root morphemes, stem morphemes, derivational morphemes, inflectional morphemes, and grammatical morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language and can be combined to form words. The internal structure of words and how they are built from morphemes is the focus of morphological analysis.
The document discusses English word and sentence structure. It defines morphology as the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning, and can be divided into bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes, and free morphemes which can stand alone. Words are formed from the combination of morphemes. There are different types of morphemes including root, stem, derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes change the part of speech of a word while inflectional morphemes indicate grammatical functions.
This document provides information about different types of words in English: simple words, complex words, and compound words. It defines each type and provides examples. Simple words consist of a single morpheme, complex words include two bound morphemes or a bound and free morpheme, and compound words have two or more free morphemes. The document also discusses distinguishing compound words from phrases, noting structural integrity, semantic meaning, and stress patterns.
Adnan: Introduction to Natural Language Processing Mustafa Jarrar
This document provides an introduction to natural language processing (NLP). It discusses key topics in NLP including languages and intelligence, the goals of NLP, applications of NLP, and general themes in NLP like ambiguity in language and statistical vs rule-based methods. The document also previews specific NLP techniques that will be covered like part-of-speech tagging, parsing, grammar induction, and finite state analysis. Empirical approaches to NLP are discussed including analyzing word frequencies in corpora and addressing data sparseness issues.
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It examines how words are formed through the combination of morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning. There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes that can stand alone as words, and bound morphemes that must be attached to other morphemes. Words can be made up of multiple morphemes arranged in a hierarchical structure. Languages have morphological rules for word formation using prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. While morphological rules are productive, there are also exceptions in the form of irregular words.
This document provides an introduction to linguistics. It discusses several key topics:
- What is known when someone knows a language, including knowledge of a language's sound system, words, sentences, and creativity.
- The difference between competence (linguistic knowledge) and performance (language use).
- What grammar is and the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammars.
- Dialects, standards, and differences between dialects.
- Language universals and the development of grammar in children.
The document discusses morphology and morphemes. It defines morphology as investigating basic forms in a language and defines a morpheme as the minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. It distinguishes between free morphemes that can stand alone as words and bound morphemes that cannot stand alone and are attached to other forms. It also distinguishes between lexical morphemes that create new words and functional morphemes that are closed class. Finally, it discusses derivational morphemes that change word categories and inflectional morphemes that indicate grammatical functions.
Xm achhi h k tu meri galti hai kya ji pagaliya ho gya h to kya kar rahi ho kya baat hai bhai bahut din m nhi hai kya mere pass nhi hai jo poochh rahe hai tab se chen nhi h to
This document discusses key concepts in lexicology and lexicography. It defines lexicology as the study of words and the lexicon, and lexicography as the cataloguing of words in dictionaries. Some key topics covered include what constitutes a word, morphology (word forms and elements), lexical semantics (word meanings), and how the lexicon develops over time through processes like word derivation, borrowing from other languages, and changes in word meanings. Ferdinand de Saussure's structuralist theory of the sign, signifier and signified is also summarized. The document distinguishes between the denotative and connotative components of a word's meaning.
Stylistics introduction, Definitions of StylisticsAngel Ortega
This document defines stylistics and discusses its branches. Stylistics is the analysis of linguistic variation in actual language use. It examines how the same content can be expressed differently and analyzes styles across texts. Stylistics considers the natural properties of language that ensure intended effects. The document also distinguishes between spoken and written language at the phonetic, lexical, and syntactic levels, and categorizes words as common, formal, technical, and slang.
The document provides information on effective business communication. It discusses communication training objectives like verbal and non-verbal communication, listening skills, and clear respectful communication. It defines communication, explains why communication skills are important, and outlines the communication cycle and types of communication. It also discusses passive, aggressive, and assertive communication styles and listening techniques.
This document summarizes key points from a lecture on linguistic relativity and gender categories:
1) Studies show that speakers of different languages may think about gendered objects like bridges differently based on the grammatical gender of the words in their language. However, the effects are subtle and testing is challenging.
2) Languages encode gender in varied ways, sometimes dividing categories that English lumps together, like separating young women from other females. This reveals how gender is a social construct.
3) While grammatical gender alone may not determine thought, habitual patterns of thinking developed for speaking a language could still subtly influence cognition in other contexts. The impacts are debated.
There are 6 levels of language: 1) Phonetics and Phonology study the sounds of language, 2) Morphology studies how morphemes like prefixes and suffixes combine to form words, 3) Syntax studies sentence structure and grammar, 4) Semantics studies meanings, 5) Pragmatics studies language in use and context, and 6) Discourse studies language above the sentence level including spoken and written text.
The document summarizes key topics from Chapter 3 of Psychology of Reading (2nd ed.) regarding word perception. It discusses:
1) Two potential routes to accessing sound when reading words: an addressed route that retrieves a word's pronunciation directly and an assembled route that constructs pronunciation.
2) Evidence that both routes are involved in reading real words, not just one or the other. Assembled phonology plays an important role in semantic access of words.
3) Processing of different word types like function words, multimorphemic words, and how models explain their recognition. Cross-language studies also show how orthography influences reliance on routes.
The document provides an overview of semantics, which is defined as the study of meaning in language. It discusses several theories and approaches to analyzing word meanings, including semantic features, roles, and relationships between words. Specifically, it covers componential analysis, where words are broken down into semantic components or features; semantic roles that describe how entities are involved in actions; and lexical relations like synonymy and antonymy between words. The document also addresses some limitations of different theories of meaning.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
- Clitics are linguistic elements that are not full words but attach to other words. They cannot be stressed and do not cause the same morphological changes as prefixes or suffixes.
- In Spanish, clitic pronouns attach to the verb but do not change the stress pattern of the word. For example, "I am reading it" becomes "I'm reading it" when the clitic is added.
- The document discusses various tests and criteria for determining parts of speech based on distribution and morphology. However, it notes that some words defy strict categorization, and the distributional theory has limitations. Overall tests of contexts, affixation, and other changes help identify parts of speech but cannot account for all
Morphology is the study of word forms and the rules by which words are formed. There are several types of morphemes including bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes, free morphemes, root morphemes, stem morphemes, derivational morphemes, inflectional morphemes, and grammatical morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language and can be combined to form words. The internal structure of words and how they are built from morphemes is the focus of morphological analysis.
The document discusses English word and sentence structure. It defines morphology as the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning, and can be divided into bound morphemes like prefixes and suffixes, and free morphemes which can stand alone. Words are formed from the combination of morphemes. There are different types of morphemes including root, stem, derivational and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes change the part of speech of a word while inflectional morphemes indicate grammatical functions.
This document provides information about different types of words in English: simple words, complex words, and compound words. It defines each type and provides examples. Simple words consist of a single morpheme, complex words include two bound morphemes or a bound and free morpheme, and compound words have two or more free morphemes. The document also discusses distinguishing compound words from phrases, noting structural integrity, semantic meaning, and stress patterns.
Adnan: Introduction to Natural Language Processing Mustafa Jarrar
This document provides an introduction to natural language processing (NLP). It discusses key topics in NLP including languages and intelligence, the goals of NLP, applications of NLP, and general themes in NLP like ambiguity in language and statistical vs rule-based methods. The document also previews specific NLP techniques that will be covered like part-of-speech tagging, parsing, grammar induction, and finite state analysis. Empirical approaches to NLP are discussed including analyzing word frequencies in corpora and addressing data sparseness issues.
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It examines how words are formed through the combination of morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning. There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes that can stand alone as words, and bound morphemes that must be attached to other morphemes. Words can be made up of multiple morphemes arranged in a hierarchical structure. Languages have morphological rules for word formation using prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. While morphological rules are productive, there are also exceptions in the form of irregular words.
This document provides an introduction to linguistics. It discusses several key topics:
- What is known when someone knows a language, including knowledge of a language's sound system, words, sentences, and creativity.
- The difference between competence (linguistic knowledge) and performance (language use).
- What grammar is and the difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammars.
- Dialects, standards, and differences between dialects.
- Language universals and the development of grammar in children.
The document discusses morphology and morphemes. It defines morphology as investigating basic forms in a language and defines a morpheme as the minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. It distinguishes between free morphemes that can stand alone as words and bound morphemes that cannot stand alone and are attached to other forms. It also distinguishes between lexical morphemes that create new words and functional morphemes that are closed class. Finally, it discusses derivational morphemes that change word categories and inflectional morphemes that indicate grammatical functions.
Xm achhi h k tu meri galti hai kya ji pagaliya ho gya h to kya kar rahi ho kya baat hai bhai bahut din m nhi hai kya mere pass nhi hai jo poochh rahe hai tab se chen nhi h to
This document discusses key concepts in lexicology and lexicography. It defines lexicology as the study of words and the lexicon, and lexicography as the cataloguing of words in dictionaries. Some key topics covered include what constitutes a word, morphology (word forms and elements), lexical semantics (word meanings), and how the lexicon develops over time through processes like word derivation, borrowing from other languages, and changes in word meanings. Ferdinand de Saussure's structuralist theory of the sign, signifier and signified is also summarized. The document distinguishes between the denotative and connotative components of a word's meaning.
Stylistics introduction, Definitions of StylisticsAngel Ortega
This document defines stylistics and discusses its branches. Stylistics is the analysis of linguistic variation in actual language use. It examines how the same content can be expressed differently and analyzes styles across texts. Stylistics considers the natural properties of language that ensure intended effects. The document also distinguishes between spoken and written language at the phonetic, lexical, and syntactic levels, and categorizes words as common, formal, technical, and slang.
The document provides information on effective business communication. It discusses communication training objectives like verbal and non-verbal communication, listening skills, and clear respectful communication. It defines communication, explains why communication skills are important, and outlines the communication cycle and types of communication. It also discusses passive, aggressive, and assertive communication styles and listening techniques.
This document summarizes key points from a lecture on linguistic relativity and gender categories:
1) Studies show that speakers of different languages may think about gendered objects like bridges differently based on the grammatical gender of the words in their language. However, the effects are subtle and testing is challenging.
2) Languages encode gender in varied ways, sometimes dividing categories that English lumps together, like separating young women from other females. This reveals how gender is a social construct.
3) While grammatical gender alone may not determine thought, habitual patterns of thinking developed for speaking a language could still subtly influence cognition in other contexts. The impacts are debated.
There are 6 levels of language: 1) Phonetics and Phonology study the sounds of language, 2) Morphology studies how morphemes like prefixes and suffixes combine to form words, 3) Syntax studies sentence structure and grammar, 4) Semantics studies meanings, 5) Pragmatics studies language in use and context, and 6) Discourse studies language above the sentence level including spoken and written text.
The document summarizes key topics from Chapter 3 of Psychology of Reading (2nd ed.) regarding word perception. It discusses:
1) Two potential routes to accessing sound when reading words: an addressed route that retrieves a word's pronunciation directly and an assembled route that constructs pronunciation.
2) Evidence that both routes are involved in reading real words, not just one or the other. Assembled phonology plays an important role in semantic access of words.
3) Processing of different word types like function words, multimorphemic words, and how models explain their recognition. Cross-language studies also show how orthography influences reliance on routes.
The document provides an overview of semantics, which is defined as the study of meaning in language. It discusses several theories and approaches to analyzing word meanings, including semantic features, roles, and relationships between words. Specifically, it covers componential analysis, where words are broken down into semantic components or features; semantic roles that describe how entities are involved in actions; and lexical relations like synonymy and antonymy between words. The document also addresses some limitations of different theories of meaning.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Evidence of Jet Activity from the Secondary Black Hole in the OJ 287 Binary S...Sérgio Sacani
Wereport the study of a huge optical intraday flare on 2021 November 12 at 2 a.m. UT in the blazar OJ287. In the binary black hole model, it is associated with an impact of the secondary black hole on the accretion disk of the primary. Our multifrequency observing campaign was set up to search for such a signature of the impact based on a prediction made 8 yr earlier. The first I-band results of the flare have already been reported by Kishore et al. (2024). Here we combine these data with our monitoring in the R-band. There is a big change in the R–I spectral index by 1.0 ±0.1 between the normal background and the flare, suggesting a new component of radiation. The polarization variation during the rise of the flare suggests the same. The limits on the source size place it most reasonably in the jet of the secondary BH. We then ask why we have not seen this phenomenon before. We show that OJ287 was never before observed with sufficient sensitivity on the night when the flare should have happened according to the binary model. We also study the probability that this flare is just an oversized example of intraday variability using the Krakow data set of intense monitoring between 2015 and 2023. We find that the occurrence of a flare of this size and rapidity is unlikely. In machine-readable Tables 1 and 2, we give the full orbit-linked historical light curve of OJ287 as well as the dense monitoring sample of Krakow.
Discovery of An Apparent Red, High-Velocity Type Ia Supernova at 𝐳 = 2.9 wi...Sérgio Sacani
We present the JWST discovery of SN 2023adsy, a transient object located in a host galaxy JADES-GS
+
53.13485
−
27.82088
with a host spectroscopic redshift of
2.903
±
0.007
. The transient was identified in deep James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/NIRCam imaging from the JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. Photometric and spectroscopic followup with NIRCam and NIRSpec, respectively, confirm the redshift and yield UV-NIR light-curve, NIR color, and spectroscopic information all consistent with a Type Ia classification. Despite its classification as a likely SN Ia, SN 2023adsy is both fairly red (
�
(
�
−
�
)
∼
0.9
) despite a host galaxy with low-extinction and has a high Ca II velocity (
19
,
000
±
2
,
000
km/s) compared to the general population of SNe Ia. While these characteristics are consistent with some Ca-rich SNe Ia, particularly SN 2016hnk, SN 2023adsy is intrinsically brighter than the low-
�
Ca-rich population. Although such an object is too red for any low-
�
cosmological sample, we apply a fiducial standardization approach to SN 2023adsy and find that the SN 2023adsy luminosity distance measurement is in excellent agreement (
≲
1
�
) with
Λ
CDM. Therefore unlike low-
�
Ca-rich SNe Ia, SN 2023adsy is standardizable and gives no indication that SN Ia standardized luminosities change significantly with redshift. A larger sample of distant SNe Ia is required to determine if SN Ia population characteristics at high-
�
truly diverge from their low-
�
counterparts, and to confirm that standardized luminosities nevertheless remain constant with redshift.
PPT on Alternate Wetting and Drying presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Microbial interaction
Microorganisms interacts with each other and can be physically associated with another organisms in a variety of ways.
One organism can be located on the surface of another organism as an ectobiont or located within another organism as endobiont.
Microbial interaction may be positive such as mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism or may be negative such as parasitism, predation or competition
Types of microbial interaction
Positive interaction: mutualism, proto-cooperation, commensalism
Negative interaction: Ammensalism (antagonism), parasitism, predation, competition
I. Mutualism:
It is defined as the relationship in which each organism in interaction gets benefits from association. It is an obligatory relationship in which mutualist and host are metabolically dependent on each other.
Mutualistic relationship is very specific where one member of association cannot be replaced by another species.
Mutualism require close physical contact between interacting organisms.
Relationship of mutualism allows organisms to exist in habitat that could not occupied by either species alone.
Mutualistic relationship between organisms allows them to act as a single organism.
Examples of mutualism:
i. Lichens:
Lichens are excellent example of mutualism.
They are the association of specific fungi and certain genus of algae. In lichen, fungal partner is called mycobiont and algal partner is called
II. Syntrophism:
It is an association in which the growth of one organism either depends on or improved by the substrate provided by another organism.
In syntrophism both organism in association gets benefits.
Compound A
Utilized by population 1
Compound B
Utilized by population 2
Compound C
utilized by both Population 1+2
Products
In this theoretical example of syntrophism, population 1 is able to utilize and metabolize compound A, forming compound B but cannot metabolize beyond compound B without co-operation of population 2. Population 2is unable to utilize compound A but it can metabolize compound B forming compound C. Then both population 1 and 2 are able to carry out metabolic reaction which leads to formation of end product that neither population could produce alone.
Examples of syntrophism:
i. Methanogenic ecosystem in sludge digester
Methane produced by methanogenic bacteria depends upon interspecies hydrogen transfer by other fermentative bacteria.
Anaerobic fermentative bacteria generate CO2 and H2 utilizing carbohydrates which is then utilized by methanogenic bacteria (Methanobacter) to produce methane.
ii. Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis:
In the minimal media, Lactobacillus arobinosus and Enterococcus faecalis are able to grow together but not alone.
The synergistic relationship between E. faecalis and L. arobinosus occurs in which E. faecalis require folic acid
Travis Hills of MN is Making Clean Water Accessible to All Through High Flux ...Travis Hills MN
By harnessing the power of High Flux Vacuum Membrane Distillation, Travis Hills from MN envisions a future where clean and safe drinking water is accessible to all, regardless of geographical location or economic status.
2. 2
What is Morphology?
• The study of how words are composed of
morphemes (the smallest meaning-bearing units of a
language)
– Stems – core meaning units in a lexicon
– Affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes) – bits and
pieces that combine with stems to modify their meanings
and grammatical functions (can have multiple ones)
• Immaterial
• Trying
• Absobl**dylutely
• agoing
• Unreadable
3. 3
Why is Morphology Important to the
Lexicon?
Full listing versus Minimal Redundancy
• true, truer, truest, truly, untrue, truth, truthful,
truthfully, untruthfully, untruthfulness
• Untruthfulness = un- + true + -th + -ful + -ness
• These morphemes appear to be productive
• By representing knowledge about the internal
structure of words and the rules of word formation,
we can save room and search time.
4. 4
Need to do Morphological Parsing
Morphological Parsing (or Stemming)
• Taking a surface input and breaking it down into its
morphemes
• foxes breaks down into the morphemes fox (noun
stem) and –es (plural suffix)
• rewrites breaks down into re- (prefix) and write (stem)
and –s (suffix)
5. 5
Two Broad Classes of Morphology
• Inflectional Morphology
– Combination of stem and morpheme resulting in word of
same class
– Usually fills a syntactic feature such as agreement
– E.g., plural –s, past tense -ed
• Derivational Morphology
– Combination of stem and morpheme usually results in a
word of a different class
– Meaning of the new word may be hard to predict
– E.g., +ation in words such as computerization
6. 6
Word Classes
• By word class, we have in mind familiar notions like
noun and verb that we discussed a bit in the previous
lecture.
• We’ll go into more details when we get to parsing
(Chapter 12).
• Right now we’re concerned with word classes
because the way that stems and affixes combine is
based to a large degree on the word class of the
stem.
7. 7
English Inflectional Morphology
• Word stem combines with grammatical morpheme
– Usually produces word of same class
– Usually serves a syntactic function (e.g., agreement)
like likes or liked
bird birds
• Nominal morphology
– Plural forms
• s or es
• Irregular forms (next slide)
• Mass vs. count nouns (email or emails)
– Possessives
8. 8
Complication in Morphology
• Ok so it gets a little complicated by the fact that some
words misbehave (refuse to follow the rules)
• The terms regular and irregular will be used to refer
to words that follow the rules and those that don’t.
Regular (Nouns)
• Singular (cat, thrush)
• Plural (cats, thrushes)
• Possessive (cat’s thrushes’)
Irregular (Nouns)
• Singular (mouse, ox)
• Plural (mice, oxen)
9. 9
• Verbal inflection
– Main verbs (sleep, like, fear) are relatively regular
• -s, ing, ed
• And productive: Emailed, instant-messaged, faxed,
homered
• But eat/ate/eaten, catch/caught/caught
– Primary (be, have, do) and modal verbs (can, will, must) are
often irregular and not productive
• Be: am/is/are/were/was/been/being
– Irregular verbs few (~250) but frequently occurring
– English verbal inflection is much simpler than e.g. Latin
11. 11
Derivational Morphology
• Derivational morphology is the messy stuff that no
one ever taught you.
– Quasi-systematicity
– Irregular meaning change
– Changes of word class
12. 12
English Derivational Morphology
• Word stem combines with grammatical morpheme
– Usually produces a word of a different class
– More complicated than inflectional
• Example: nominalization
– -ize verbs -ation nouns
– generalize, realize generalization, realization
– verb -er nouns
– Murder, spell murderer, speller
• Example: verbs, nouns adjectives
– embrace, pity embraceable, pitiable
– care, wit careless, witless
13. 13
• Example: adjective adverb
– happy happily
• More complicated to model than inflection
– Less productive: *science-less, *concern-less, *go-able,
*sleep-able
– Meanings of derived terms harder to predict by rule
• clueless, careless, nerveless
17. 17
How do people represent words?
• Hypotheses:
– Full listing hypothesis: words listed
– Minimum redundancy hypothesis: morphemes listed
• Experimental evidence:
– Priming experiments (Does seeing/hearing one word
facilitate recognition of another?) suggest neither
• Regularly inflected forms prime stem but not derived forms
• But spoken derived words can prime stems if they are
semantically close (e.g. government/govern but not
department/depart)
18. 18
• Speech errors suggest affixes must be represented
separately in the mental lexicon
– easy enoughly
19. 19
Parsing
• Taking a surface input and identifying its components
and underlying structure
• Morphological parsing: parsing a word into stem and
affixes and identifying the parts and their
relationships
– Stem and features:
• goose goose +N +SG or goose +V
• geese goose +N +PL
• gooses goose +V +3SG
– Bracketing: indecipherable [in [[de [cipher]] able]]
20. 20
Why parse words?
• For spell-checking
– Is muncheble a legal word?
• To identify a word’s part-of-speech (pos)
– For sentence parsing, for machine translation, …
• To identify a word’s stem
– For information retrieval
21. 21
What do we need to build a
morphological parser?
• Lexicon: stems and affixes (w/ corresponding pos)
• Morphotactics of the language: model of how
morphemes can be affixed to a stem. E.g., plural
morpheme follows noun in English
• Orthographic rules: spelling modifications that occur
when affixation occurs
– in il in context of l (in- + legal)
34. 34
FSAs and the Lexicon
• First we’ll capture the morphotactics
– The rules governing the ordering of affixes in a language.
• Then we’ll add in the actual words
35. 35
Using FSAs to Represent the
Lexicon and Do Morphological
Recognition
• Lexicon: We can expand each non-terminal in our
NFSA into each stem in its class (e.g. adj_root2 =
{big, red}) and expand each such stem to the letters it
includes (e.g. red r e d, big b i g)
q0
q1
ε
r e
q2
q4
q3
-er, -est
d
b
g
q5
q6
i
q7
36. 36
Limitations
• To cover all of e.g. English will require very large
FSAs with consequent search problems
– Adding new items to the lexicon means recomputing the
FSA
– Non-determinism
• FSAs can only tell us whether a word is in the
language or not – what if we want to know more?
– What is the stem?
– What are the affixes and what sort are they?
– We used this information to build our FSA: can we get it
back?
37. 37
Parsing/Generation
vs. Recognition
• Recognition is usually not quite what we need.
– Usually if we find some string in the language we need to find the
structure in it (parsing)
– Or we have some structure and we want to produce a surface form
(production/generation)
• Example
– From “cats” to “cat +N +PL”
38. 38
Finite State Transducers
• The simple story
– Add another tape
– Add extra symbols to the transitions
– On one tape we read “cats”, on the other we write “cat +N
+PL”
39. 39
Parsing with Finite State
Transducers
• cats cat +N +PL
• Kimmo Koskenniemi’s two-level morphology
– Words represented as correspondences between lexical
level (the morphemes) and surface level (the orthographic
word)
– Morphological parsing :building mappings between the
lexical and surface levels
c a t +N +PL
c a t s
40. 40
Finite State Transducers
• FSTs map between one set of symbols and another
using an FSA whose alphabet is composed of pairs
of symbols from input and output alphabets
• In general, FSTs can be used for
– Translator (Hello:Ciao)
– Parser/generator (Hello:How may I help you?)
– To map between the lexical and surface levels of Kimmo’s
2-level morphology
41. 41
• FST is a 5-tuple consisting of
– Q: set of states {q0,q1,q2,q3,q4}
– : an alphabet of complex symbols, each an i/o pair s.t. i I
(an input alphabet) and o O (an output alphabet) and is
in I x O
– q0: a start state
– F: a set of final states in Q {q4}
– (q,i:o): a transition function mapping Q x to Q
– Emphatic Sheep Quizzical Cow
q0 q4
q1 q2 q3
b:m a:o
a:o
a:o !:?
42. 42
Transitions
• c:c means read a c on one tape and write a c on the other
• +N:ε means read a +N symbol on one tape and write nothing on
the other
• +PL:s means read +PL and write an s
c:c a:a t:t +N:ε +PL:s
43. 43
FST for a 2-level Lexicon
• E.g.
Reg-n Irreg-pl-n Irreg-sg-n
c a t g o:e o:e s e g o o s e
q0 q1 q2 q3
c a t
q1 q3 q4
q2
s
e:o e:o e
q0 q5
g
44. 44
FST for English Nominal
Inflection
q0 q7
+PL:^s#
Combining (cascade or composition) this FSA
with FSAs for each noun type replaces e.g. reg-
n with every regular noun representation in the
lexicon
q1 q4
q2 q5
q3 q6
reg-n
irreg-n-sg
irreg-n-pl
+N:
+PL:#
+SG:#
+SG:#
+N:
+N:
45. 45
The Gory Details
• Of course, its not as easy as
– “cat +N +PL” <-> “cats”
• Or even dealing with the irregulars geese, mice and
oxen
• But there are also a whole host of
spelling/pronunciation changes that go along with
inflectional changes
46. 46
Multi-Tape Machines
• To deal with this we can simply add more tapes and
use the output of one tape machine as the input to
the next
• So to handle irregular spelling changes we’ll add
intermediate tapes with intermediate symbols
47. 47
Multi-Level Tape Machines
• We use one machine to transduce between the lexical and the
intermediate level, and another to handle the spelling changes
to the surface tape
48. 48
Orthographic Rules and FSTs
• Define additional FSTs to implement rules such as
consonant doubling (beg begging), ‘e’ deletion
(make making), ‘e’ insertion (watch watches),
etc.
Lexical
f o x +N +PL
Intermediate
f o x ^ s #
Surface
f o x e s
51. 51
Note
• A key feature of this machine is that it doesn’t do
anything to inputs to which it doesn’t apply.
• Meaning that they are written out unchanged to the
output tape.
54. 54
• Note: These FSTs can be used for generation as well
as recognition by simply exchanging the input and
output alphabets (e.g. ^s#:+PL)
55. 55
Summing Up
• FSTs provide a useful tool for implementing a
standard model of morphological analysis, Kimmo’s
two-level morphology
– Key is to provide an FST for each of multiple levels of
representation and then to combine those FSTs using a
variety of operators (cf AT&T FSM Toolkit)
– Other (older) approaches are still widely used, e.g. the rule-
based Porter Stemmer