The document discusses various materials used in road building, including:
- Subgrade/soil types and testing methods like particle size distribution, moisture content, and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) to evaluate soil strength.
- Aggregates used in asphalt and concrete, and tests for aggregate properties.
- Asphalt and asphalt mixtures, including mix design methods.
- Portland cement concrete used in roads.
It provides an overview of different material properties, tests, and considerations in selecting appropriate materials for building roads.
The document discusses the three stages of site investigation: 1) a desk study involving collecting existing information about the site, 2) a walk-over survey to confirm and further investigate information from the desk study, and 3) a ground investigation using techniques like boreholes and trial pits to obtain detailed soil information. The walk-over survey involves inspecting six areas of the site, while the ground investigation provides soil classification, profiles, and parameters needed for foundation design. Understanding the groundwater conditions is also important, as a high water table can increase construction costs and risks.
1892 soil investigation for foundationsChandra Mouli
This document provides the code of practice for subsurface investigation for foundations in India. It outlines the importance of subsurface exploration to understand soil and groundwater conditions at construction sites. The document discusses site reconnaissance, previous land use history, suitable investigation methods like trial pits, boreholes, geophysical tests. It provides guidance on number and spacing of exploration points based on site size and geology. Exploration depth should be 1.5 times the width of foundation below foundation level. The code aims to help engineers obtain complete subsurface information for foundation design and construction.
This document provides an overview of site investigation planning and procurement. It discusses the objectives of site investigation, which include site selection, foundation and earthworks design, temporary works design, assessing environmental impacts, investigating existing construction, designing remedial works, and conducting safety checks. The document also outlines the history and development of site investigation techniques from ancient times through the 20th century, noting important contributions from Terzaghi, Casagrande, and others to establishing modern soil mechanics principles and standardized investigation methods.
1. A site investigation determines the suitability of a site for construction by examining physical aspects like soil composition and legal aspects like planning permissions.
2. The investigation assesses the site suitability, helps with design and construction planning, and predicts potential issues. Information is needed on soil properties, groundwater, and excavated materials.
3. The investigation process involves a desk study of existing information, a site walkover, detailed tests and sampling which may include trial pits and boreholes to examine soil and groundwater conditions.
Site investigation plays a crucial role in identifying adverse ground conditions that can jeopardize tunnel projects and cause delays or accidents during construction. Key aspects of site investigation include desk studies, walkover surveys, subsurface exploration techniques like drilling and cone penetration tests, and geophysical methods. Case studies of past tunneling accidents demonstrate how lack of knowledge about geological conditions from inadequate site investigation can lead to failures like collapses from groundwater ingress or unstable rock masses. A multistage site investigation employing various techniques can best acquire information to reduce risks from unexpected ground conditions during tunnel excavation.
The document summarizes the stages of a site investigation which includes a desk study, site reconnaissance, detailed exploration and sampling, field/in-situ testing, and laboratory testing. The objectives are to assess suitability, enable adequate design, plan construction, determine ground changes, and document the investigation in a report. Site investigations involve exploring ground conditions through methods like boreholes, trial pits, and geophysical surveys to inform engineering design decisions.
This document provides information on foundations for roads and bridges. It discusses shallow and deep foundations for buildings. For roads, it describes classification, geometric design considerations, and factors to consider in site investigations. Major bridge types include beam, truss, arch, and suspension bridges. Bridge site investigations consider geological and geotechnical factors that can impact foundations and stability. Foundations are designed based on bearing capacity and load transfer to the ground. Shallow foundations are used when soil/rock is sufficiently strong near the surface, while deep foundations using piles or piers are used when the surface is inadequate.
The document discusses the three stages of site investigation: 1) a desk study involving collecting existing information about the site, 2) a walk-over survey to confirm and further investigate information from the desk study, and 3) a ground investigation using techniques like boreholes and trial pits to obtain detailed soil information. The walk-over survey involves inspecting six areas of the site, while the ground investigation provides soil classification, profiles, and parameters needed for foundation design. Understanding the groundwater conditions is also important, as a high water table can increase construction costs and risks.
1892 soil investigation for foundationsChandra Mouli
This document provides the code of practice for subsurface investigation for foundations in India. It outlines the importance of subsurface exploration to understand soil and groundwater conditions at construction sites. The document discusses site reconnaissance, previous land use history, suitable investigation methods like trial pits, boreholes, geophysical tests. It provides guidance on number and spacing of exploration points based on site size and geology. Exploration depth should be 1.5 times the width of foundation below foundation level. The code aims to help engineers obtain complete subsurface information for foundation design and construction.
This document provides an overview of site investigation planning and procurement. It discusses the objectives of site investigation, which include site selection, foundation and earthworks design, temporary works design, assessing environmental impacts, investigating existing construction, designing remedial works, and conducting safety checks. The document also outlines the history and development of site investigation techniques from ancient times through the 20th century, noting important contributions from Terzaghi, Casagrande, and others to establishing modern soil mechanics principles and standardized investigation methods.
1. A site investigation determines the suitability of a site for construction by examining physical aspects like soil composition and legal aspects like planning permissions.
2. The investigation assesses the site suitability, helps with design and construction planning, and predicts potential issues. Information is needed on soil properties, groundwater, and excavated materials.
3. The investigation process involves a desk study of existing information, a site walkover, detailed tests and sampling which may include trial pits and boreholes to examine soil and groundwater conditions.
Site investigation plays a crucial role in identifying adverse ground conditions that can jeopardize tunnel projects and cause delays or accidents during construction. Key aspects of site investigation include desk studies, walkover surveys, subsurface exploration techniques like drilling and cone penetration tests, and geophysical methods. Case studies of past tunneling accidents demonstrate how lack of knowledge about geological conditions from inadequate site investigation can lead to failures like collapses from groundwater ingress or unstable rock masses. A multistage site investigation employing various techniques can best acquire information to reduce risks from unexpected ground conditions during tunnel excavation.
The document summarizes the stages of a site investigation which includes a desk study, site reconnaissance, detailed exploration and sampling, field/in-situ testing, and laboratory testing. The objectives are to assess suitability, enable adequate design, plan construction, determine ground changes, and document the investigation in a report. Site investigations involve exploring ground conditions through methods like boreholes, trial pits, and geophysical surveys to inform engineering design decisions.
This document provides information on foundations for roads and bridges. It discusses shallow and deep foundations for buildings. For roads, it describes classification, geometric design considerations, and factors to consider in site investigations. Major bridge types include beam, truss, arch, and suspension bridges. Bridge site investigations consider geological and geotechnical factors that can impact foundations and stability. Foundations are designed based on bearing capacity and load transfer to the ground. Shallow foundations are used when soil/rock is sufficiently strong near the surface, while deep foundations using piles or piers are used when the surface is inadequate.
This chapter discusses engineering geological site investigations. The objectives of a site investigation are to understand subsurface conditions like soil/rock profiles, groundwater levels, and physical properties in order to determine appropriate foundation types and provide design recommendations. A site investigation involves planning, execution of field and lab testing, and report writing. Fieldwork includes collecting disturbed and undisturbed samples, in-situ tests, and borehole logging. Proper data interpretation is also important and involves understanding measurement scales, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. The overall goal is to safely and economically design and construct engineering projects based on site-specific conditions.
Site investigation involves determining the soil layers and properties beneath a proposed structure. It helps select the foundation type, evaluate load capacity, estimate settlement, and identify potential issues. The exploration program uses methods like boreholes, test pits, and probes to characterize soil stratification, strength, deformation, and groundwater. Proper planning is needed to obtain reliable data at minimum cost.
Dr. Malek Smadi, Ph.D. thesis lateral deformation and associated settlement r...Dr. Malek Smadi
Settlement of structures on soft clay deposits results from flow and consolidation of soil. In the latter case, water squeezes out from under the structure, whereas in the former case soil squeezes out. Settlement resulting from flow of soil depends on the factor of safety against undrained instability.
In construction situations where the factor of safety is small, an accurate prediction of settlement reSUlting from flow of soil is required. Field measurements of horizontal deformation of soft clays during and after construction of embankments and storage facilities have been collected from throughout the world, covering 180 case histories, to relate lateral deformation to the factor of safety and to develop a practical procedure for computing settlements resulting from flow of soil.
forms and distribution of potassium along a toposequence on basaltic soils of...IJEAB
The study was conducted in Vom, Jos Plateau state in the Southern Guinea Savanna zone of Nigeria to accentuate the forms of potassium distribution associated with topographic positions. The study area lies between longitudes 080 45’ 01” and 80 47’ 56’’ E, latitudes 90 43’ 17’’ and 90 45’ 15’’ N, with an elevation of about 1270m above sea level. A stratified purposive sampling procedure was adapted, where four landscape positions were identified using Global Positioning System (GPS). The crest, upper slope, middle, and lower slope positions were identified, each representing changes in geomorphology. Two pedons were georeferenced at each topographic position, where they were sunk and described. Result show that the forms of K varied with topographic positions. Potassium distribution varied from surface to subsurface in different topographic positions. Water soluble K was higher at crest surface (0.0569 cmolkg-1) and decreased with soil profile depth. Exchangeable K has highest value of 0.1317 and 0.1308 cmol/kg-1 at both lower slope positions in general. Non exchangeable K values where higher at all surfaces than the subsurfaces of topographic positions. HCl soluble K values were higher at lower and upper slopes surface, moderately at middle and least at crest slope positions. Total K values were higher at upper slope subsurface, middle, and lower slope surface with low variations at the crest positions. However, the distribution of the K forms did not shown a well – defined trend with respect to topographic positions.
The process of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that will underlie a proposed structure and their physical properties is generally referred to as site investigation.
Matthew Cahalan Georgia Water Resources Conference PresentationMatthew Cahalan
This is the poster I presented at the 2015 Georgia Water Resources Conference. It focuses on my M.S. thesis research that seeks to answer this fundamental question: "why do sinkholes form where they do?". This question was answered using an improved remote sensing sinkhole mapping procedure, integration of many datasets (i.e., hydrologic, anthropogenic, geologic, geomorphologic, and hydrogeologic), and spatial statistics (i.e., ordinary least squares and geographically weighted regression). This poster / my presentation was voted as one of the top 3 posters at the conference.
Sukrati pandit- National Institute of Technology- WarangalSukrati Pandit
This document discusses the importance of liquefaction in geotechnical engineering. It defines liquefaction as when soil behaves like a liquid during earthquakes due to increased pore water pressure. Typical effects include loss of bearing strength, lateral spreading, sand boils, ground oscillation, and flotation of buried structures. Case studies of the 2006 Yogyakarta and 2001 Bhuj earthquakes show evidence of liquefaction effects. A study of Delhi soils found shallow subsurface layers are susceptible to liquefaction. Mitigation options include strengthening structures, modifying foundations, and soil stabilization techniques like densification.
This document discusses key aspects of engineering geology and its importance in modern development. It provides examples of how poor subsurface conditions, lack of safety measures, and lack of studies can lead to infrastructure failures. It emphasizes the role of engineering geology in properly studying soil and subsurface conditions before construction to select the best design and safety remedies. Methods discussed include field and laboratory investigations to understand rock quality and recommend appropriate structural support.
The document discusses site investigation for civil engineering projects. It explains that site investigations are needed to understand ground conditions and enable safe and cost-effective project design, construction and operation. The objectives of site investigations are to assess suitability, enable design, plan construction, consider environmental impacts, and identify alternative sites. Site investigations involve desk studies, site reconnaissance, subsurface exploration including boreholes, and laboratory and in-situ testing to characterize soil and rock properties.
Assessment of Spatial and Temporal Variations of Soil Salinity using Remote S...Hamdi Zurqani
“The aim of this paper is to identify the change in saline soils (Sebkha) using Remote Sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) techniques”.
This document discusses geological considerations for successful tunneling. It describes how the rock type, geological structures, and groundwater conditions can impact tunnel construction. Competent rocks like massive igneous rocks allow safe but slow tunneling without lining, while incompetent or fractured rocks require support. Folded or jointed rocks, fault zones, and water-bearing formations present challenges. Proper site investigation is needed to evaluate the geology and plan appropriate excavation and support methods.
THE EFFECT OF GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES ON THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SELECTED SOI...IAEME Publication
The document summarizes a study on the geotechnical properties and bearing capacity of soils in Al-Najaf Governorate, Iraq. Laboratory and field tests were conducted including standard penetration tests, water level observations, and permeability tests. The soils were found to be predominantly clayey with high plasticity (CH), and groundwater was detected between 0.5-0.9 meters below surface. Bearing capacity was calculated using dynamic and static methods, ranging from 21.45-31.35 tonnes/m2 and 9.82-14.20 tonnes/m2 respectively. The study concluded the soils will require engineering treatments before construction.
Classification and Assessment of Soil Compaction Level in Amassoma, Bayelsa S...Premier Publishers
Soil compaction is essential in construction. The failure to displace air from between particles when constructing buildings, roads, parking lots, dams, walls, swimming pools, or utility trench inevitably leads to unwanted soil movement and water penetration into the earth beneath construction projects.Soil compaction is one of the most important aspects of any earthwork construction. Assessing the level of compaction of soil in Amassoma is to ascertain the compatibility or rate of compaction of the underlining earth materials (soils).Nine (9) samples were collected at regular intervals of 1m, 2m, 3m, 4m, 5m, 6m, 7m, 8m and 9m which were used for the analyses. The samples collected were subjected to different laboratory test to determine the index properties and the level of compaction of the soil. Sieve analysis result of the samples shows that the percentage of fines and sands are in the range of 21.57%-63.20% and 36.80% and78.73%, respectively.Atterberg result also shows that the soil liquid limit (LL) is in the range of 48.51%-54.90% plastic limit (PL) ranges from 29/13%-36.51% and 14.78%-25.18% for plastic index (PI). Another experiment shows that the value of maximum Dry Density (MD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) are 1.70g/cm3 and 18 40%. The analysis done for this work reveals that the soil in the area (Amassoma) can be classified as medium to high plastic soil (unified soil classification system) and that the soil in moderately compacted. Comparing the CBR test results with the Nigeria standard, the soils found in Amassoma can be used as sub-grade materials for construction.
The document discusses the foundation engineering assessment for installing the world's largest jack-up rig offshore Norway. Based on site investigations, the soil conditions varied across the site and consisted of bedrock overlaid by soft silt/clay and a shallow sand layer. Conventional and finite element analyses proposed constructing sand banks to provide a stable foundation. Three-dimensional finite element modeling of the integrated jack-up structure, skirted spudcan foundations, and soil was used to determine the optimal sand bank geometry. The modeling showed structural forces would remain acceptable during installation, preloading, and storm conditions. The rig was successfully installed, validating the engineering predictions.
This document provides an overview of landslides and geohazards. It defines landslides and describes different types such as rotational, translational, and flows. Causes of landslides like earthquakes, heavy rainfall, slope geometry, and erosion are discussed. The document outlines approaches for landslide hazard mapping including qualitative, quantitative, and statistical methods. Finally, it presents methods for landslide remediation like increasing slope stability through drainage improvements, retaining walls, reinforcement, and vegetation.
This document provides an overview of geotechnical site investigation. It discusses the history and development of site investigations, different approaches to site investigations from desk studies to limited investigations with monitoring, and the typical sequence of a geotechnical site investigation. It also describes various subsurface exploration techniques including geophysics, boring, drilling, probing, and in situ testing methods.
The document discusses soil investigation for determining appropriate foundation types and capacities. It describes conducting field tests and collecting lab samples to characterize soil properties, profile, and bearing capacity. Common soil colors are outlined. Methods of soil exploration include test pits, borings, and geophysical techniques. Problems with expansive black cotton soils are explained. Design considerations for shallow foundations and pile foundations are covered.
This document reviews experimental approaches, theoretical models, numerical simulations, and influencing factors related to desiccation cracking in soils. Section 1 introduces how desiccation cracking impacts soil properties and the importance of studying this phenomenon. Section 2 summarizes past and current experimental methods used to investigate cracking at various scales. Section 3 presents theoretical frameworks developed to describe cracking mechanisms. Section 4 discusses numerical tools used to simulate crack initiation, propagation, and coalescence. Section 5 describes the coupled processes involved in crack dynamics. Section 6 examines major factors influencing cracking, including soil properties, boundaries, environment, and additives. Sections 7 and 8 provide a summary and propose areas for future work.
Geotechnical engineering is concerned with engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses principles of soil and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions, determine material properties, evaluate stability, assess risks, design foundations and earthworks, and monitor sites. A typical project involves reviewing needs, investigating the site through borings, laboratory testing, and assessing risks from natural hazards. Geotechnical engineers then design appropriate foundations and earthworks. Subsurface investigations characterize subsurface conditions and allow engineers to evaluate how earth will behave under structural loads.
This chapter discusses engineering geological site investigations. The objectives of a site investigation are to understand subsurface conditions like soil/rock profiles, groundwater levels, and physical properties in order to determine appropriate foundation types and provide design recommendations. A site investigation involves planning, execution of field and lab testing, and report writing. Fieldwork includes collecting disturbed and undisturbed samples, in-situ tests, and borehole logging. Proper data interpretation is also important and involves understanding measurement scales, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. The overall goal is to safely and economically design and construct engineering projects based on site-specific conditions.
Site investigation involves determining the soil layers and properties beneath a proposed structure. It helps select the foundation type, evaluate load capacity, estimate settlement, and identify potential issues. The exploration program uses methods like boreholes, test pits, and probes to characterize soil stratification, strength, deformation, and groundwater. Proper planning is needed to obtain reliable data at minimum cost.
Dr. Malek Smadi, Ph.D. thesis lateral deformation and associated settlement r...Dr. Malek Smadi
Settlement of structures on soft clay deposits results from flow and consolidation of soil. In the latter case, water squeezes out from under the structure, whereas in the former case soil squeezes out. Settlement resulting from flow of soil depends on the factor of safety against undrained instability.
In construction situations where the factor of safety is small, an accurate prediction of settlement reSUlting from flow of soil is required. Field measurements of horizontal deformation of soft clays during and after construction of embankments and storage facilities have been collected from throughout the world, covering 180 case histories, to relate lateral deformation to the factor of safety and to develop a practical procedure for computing settlements resulting from flow of soil.
forms and distribution of potassium along a toposequence on basaltic soils of...IJEAB
The study was conducted in Vom, Jos Plateau state in the Southern Guinea Savanna zone of Nigeria to accentuate the forms of potassium distribution associated with topographic positions. The study area lies between longitudes 080 45’ 01” and 80 47’ 56’’ E, latitudes 90 43’ 17’’ and 90 45’ 15’’ N, with an elevation of about 1270m above sea level. A stratified purposive sampling procedure was adapted, where four landscape positions were identified using Global Positioning System (GPS). The crest, upper slope, middle, and lower slope positions were identified, each representing changes in geomorphology. Two pedons were georeferenced at each topographic position, where they were sunk and described. Result show that the forms of K varied with topographic positions. Potassium distribution varied from surface to subsurface in different topographic positions. Water soluble K was higher at crest surface (0.0569 cmolkg-1) and decreased with soil profile depth. Exchangeable K has highest value of 0.1317 and 0.1308 cmol/kg-1 at both lower slope positions in general. Non exchangeable K values where higher at all surfaces than the subsurfaces of topographic positions. HCl soluble K values were higher at lower and upper slopes surface, moderately at middle and least at crest slope positions. Total K values were higher at upper slope subsurface, middle, and lower slope surface with low variations at the crest positions. However, the distribution of the K forms did not shown a well – defined trend with respect to topographic positions.
The process of determining the layers of natural soil deposits that will underlie a proposed structure and their physical properties is generally referred to as site investigation.
Matthew Cahalan Georgia Water Resources Conference PresentationMatthew Cahalan
This is the poster I presented at the 2015 Georgia Water Resources Conference. It focuses on my M.S. thesis research that seeks to answer this fundamental question: "why do sinkholes form where they do?". This question was answered using an improved remote sensing sinkhole mapping procedure, integration of many datasets (i.e., hydrologic, anthropogenic, geologic, geomorphologic, and hydrogeologic), and spatial statistics (i.e., ordinary least squares and geographically weighted regression). This poster / my presentation was voted as one of the top 3 posters at the conference.
Sukrati pandit- National Institute of Technology- WarangalSukrati Pandit
This document discusses the importance of liquefaction in geotechnical engineering. It defines liquefaction as when soil behaves like a liquid during earthquakes due to increased pore water pressure. Typical effects include loss of bearing strength, lateral spreading, sand boils, ground oscillation, and flotation of buried structures. Case studies of the 2006 Yogyakarta and 2001 Bhuj earthquakes show evidence of liquefaction effects. A study of Delhi soils found shallow subsurface layers are susceptible to liquefaction. Mitigation options include strengthening structures, modifying foundations, and soil stabilization techniques like densification.
This document discusses key aspects of engineering geology and its importance in modern development. It provides examples of how poor subsurface conditions, lack of safety measures, and lack of studies can lead to infrastructure failures. It emphasizes the role of engineering geology in properly studying soil and subsurface conditions before construction to select the best design and safety remedies. Methods discussed include field and laboratory investigations to understand rock quality and recommend appropriate structural support.
The document discusses site investigation for civil engineering projects. It explains that site investigations are needed to understand ground conditions and enable safe and cost-effective project design, construction and operation. The objectives of site investigations are to assess suitability, enable design, plan construction, consider environmental impacts, and identify alternative sites. Site investigations involve desk studies, site reconnaissance, subsurface exploration including boreholes, and laboratory and in-situ testing to characterize soil and rock properties.
Assessment of Spatial and Temporal Variations of Soil Salinity using Remote S...Hamdi Zurqani
“The aim of this paper is to identify the change in saline soils (Sebkha) using Remote Sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) techniques”.
This document discusses geological considerations for successful tunneling. It describes how the rock type, geological structures, and groundwater conditions can impact tunnel construction. Competent rocks like massive igneous rocks allow safe but slow tunneling without lining, while incompetent or fractured rocks require support. Folded or jointed rocks, fault zones, and water-bearing formations present challenges. Proper site investigation is needed to evaluate the geology and plan appropriate excavation and support methods.
THE EFFECT OF GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES ON THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SELECTED SOI...IAEME Publication
The document summarizes a study on the geotechnical properties and bearing capacity of soils in Al-Najaf Governorate, Iraq. Laboratory and field tests were conducted including standard penetration tests, water level observations, and permeability tests. The soils were found to be predominantly clayey with high plasticity (CH), and groundwater was detected between 0.5-0.9 meters below surface. Bearing capacity was calculated using dynamic and static methods, ranging from 21.45-31.35 tonnes/m2 and 9.82-14.20 tonnes/m2 respectively. The study concluded the soils will require engineering treatments before construction.
Classification and Assessment of Soil Compaction Level in Amassoma, Bayelsa S...Premier Publishers
Soil compaction is essential in construction. The failure to displace air from between particles when constructing buildings, roads, parking lots, dams, walls, swimming pools, or utility trench inevitably leads to unwanted soil movement and water penetration into the earth beneath construction projects.Soil compaction is one of the most important aspects of any earthwork construction. Assessing the level of compaction of soil in Amassoma is to ascertain the compatibility or rate of compaction of the underlining earth materials (soils).Nine (9) samples were collected at regular intervals of 1m, 2m, 3m, 4m, 5m, 6m, 7m, 8m and 9m which were used for the analyses. The samples collected were subjected to different laboratory test to determine the index properties and the level of compaction of the soil. Sieve analysis result of the samples shows that the percentage of fines and sands are in the range of 21.57%-63.20% and 36.80% and78.73%, respectively.Atterberg result also shows that the soil liquid limit (LL) is in the range of 48.51%-54.90% plastic limit (PL) ranges from 29/13%-36.51% and 14.78%-25.18% for plastic index (PI). Another experiment shows that the value of maximum Dry Density (MD) and Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) are 1.70g/cm3 and 18 40%. The analysis done for this work reveals that the soil in the area (Amassoma) can be classified as medium to high plastic soil (unified soil classification system) and that the soil in moderately compacted. Comparing the CBR test results with the Nigeria standard, the soils found in Amassoma can be used as sub-grade materials for construction.
The document discusses the foundation engineering assessment for installing the world's largest jack-up rig offshore Norway. Based on site investigations, the soil conditions varied across the site and consisted of bedrock overlaid by soft silt/clay and a shallow sand layer. Conventional and finite element analyses proposed constructing sand banks to provide a stable foundation. Three-dimensional finite element modeling of the integrated jack-up structure, skirted spudcan foundations, and soil was used to determine the optimal sand bank geometry. The modeling showed structural forces would remain acceptable during installation, preloading, and storm conditions. The rig was successfully installed, validating the engineering predictions.
This document provides an overview of landslides and geohazards. It defines landslides and describes different types such as rotational, translational, and flows. Causes of landslides like earthquakes, heavy rainfall, slope geometry, and erosion are discussed. The document outlines approaches for landslide hazard mapping including qualitative, quantitative, and statistical methods. Finally, it presents methods for landslide remediation like increasing slope stability through drainage improvements, retaining walls, reinforcement, and vegetation.
This document provides an overview of geotechnical site investigation. It discusses the history and development of site investigations, different approaches to site investigations from desk studies to limited investigations with monitoring, and the typical sequence of a geotechnical site investigation. It also describes various subsurface exploration techniques including geophysics, boring, drilling, probing, and in situ testing methods.
The document discusses soil investigation for determining appropriate foundation types and capacities. It describes conducting field tests and collecting lab samples to characterize soil properties, profile, and bearing capacity. Common soil colors are outlined. Methods of soil exploration include test pits, borings, and geophysical techniques. Problems with expansive black cotton soils are explained. Design considerations for shallow foundations and pile foundations are covered.
This document reviews experimental approaches, theoretical models, numerical simulations, and influencing factors related to desiccation cracking in soils. Section 1 introduces how desiccation cracking impacts soil properties and the importance of studying this phenomenon. Section 2 summarizes past and current experimental methods used to investigate cracking at various scales. Section 3 presents theoretical frameworks developed to describe cracking mechanisms. Section 4 discusses numerical tools used to simulate crack initiation, propagation, and coalescence. Section 5 describes the coupled processes involved in crack dynamics. Section 6 examines major factors influencing cracking, including soil properties, boundaries, environment, and additives. Sections 7 and 8 provide a summary and propose areas for future work.
Geotechnical engineering is concerned with engineering behavior of earth materials. It uses principles of soil and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions, determine material properties, evaluate stability, assess risks, design foundations and earthworks, and monitor sites. A typical project involves reviewing needs, investigating the site through borings, laboratory testing, and assessing risks from natural hazards. Geotechnical engineers then design appropriate foundations and earthworks. Subsurface investigations characterize subsurface conditions and allow engineers to evaluate how earth will behave under structural loads.
Remote sensing application in monitoring and management of soil, water and ai...Jayvir Solanki
Remote sensing uses satellite or aircraft sensors to monitor the environment without direct contact. It can monitor soil, water, and air pollution over large areas in a timely manner. Satellite imagery is used to monitor air quality by detecting pollutants and aerosols. Water quality is monitored by measuring changes in the spectral signature of surface water caused by substances like sediments, algae, and thermal releases. Remote sensing provides synoptic views of large areas but has limitations like spectral interference and inability to distinguish low concentrations of pollutants. It is a useful tool for environmental monitoring when used in conjunction with field data.
Tunnelling is a serious engineering project.
In addition to large investment cost, the challenges related to long and deep tunnels are considerable.
Important aspects which needs to be considered are related to the construction works, geology, environment and operation. his module highlights all these aspects.
This document discusses the application of remote sensing and GIS techniques to study groundwater potential zones. It outlines the methodology which involves preparing various thematic maps from satellite imagery and topo sheets like drainage density, slope, lineaments, land use/land cover. These factor maps are assigned ranks and weights based on their influence on groundwater. The maps are then overlaid in GIS using weighted overlay analysis to determine groundwater potential zones. The study concludes the methodology can help identify suitable locations for groundwater extraction and be used as a guideline for further research.
Engineering geology plays a key role in assessing sites for waste disposal by identifying suitable geological and hydrological features. Geotechnical investigations provide critical data on soil and rock properties to inform landfill design and ensure stability. Proper site construction, management, and restoration are also important to safeguard operations, compliance, and future land use.
This document provides information on the Geotechnical Engineering I course offered at the University of Hawassa, Faculty of Technology. The 5 ECTS credit, compulsory course is offered in the 4th semester to B.Sc. in Civil and Urban Engineering students. The course objectives are for students to gain knowledge in geotechnical engineering topics and skills in identifying soil properties and analyzing soil behavior. The course consists of 7 units covering topics such as soil formation, physical properties, classification, permeability, effective stress concept, compressibility, and consolidation over 15 weeks. Student assessment includes assignments, lab work, midterm and final exams.
This document provides an introduction to soil mechanics and discusses key concepts such as:
- The composition and phases of soil including solids, water, and air.
- Classification of soils based on particle size and plasticity. Methods of mechanical analysis like sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis are described.
- Parameters for describing particle size distribution including effective size, uniformity coefficient, and coefficient of gradation.
- The Indian Standard system for classifying soils as coarse-grained, fine-grained, or organic. Factors like liquid limit and plasticity index are important for fine-grained soil classification.
The document discusses site planning and analysis of natural factors that must be considered. It describes key concepts like geology, geomorphology, drainage, topography, and slopes. Specifically, it outlines how to analyze a site's composition and texture, focusing on factors like particle size and distribution that influence bearing capacity and drainage. Slope analysis is also important, including understanding basic slope forms and the critical angle of repose for safe construction. A thorough analysis of natural site conditions is an essential part of the planning process.
The document discusses site planning and analysis of natural factors for site selection. It describes analyzing a site's geology, geomorphology, hydrology, vegetation, wildlife and climate. Key aspects of the natural analysis include examining a site's topography and slopes through tools like contour maps and slope maps. These maps are used to understand drainage, soil composition and erosion potential to determine suitable land uses and site design.
The document discusses site planning and analysis of natural factors for site selection. It describes analyzing a site's geology, geomorphology, hydrology, vegetation, wildlife and climate. Key aspects of the natural analysis include examining a site's topography and slopes through tools like contour maps and slope maps. These maps are used to understand drainage, soil composition and erosion potential, which influence what land uses are suitable for different slopes. Performing a thorough natural analysis of a site is important for making informed planning decisions around development suitability and layout.
This document discusses the application of geophysical methods in geotechnical engineering to characterize subsurface properties. It introduces direct exploration techniques like boring and indirect methods like examining maps. Common geophysical methods described are electrical resistivity tomography, multichannel analysis of surface waves, ground penetrating radar, and LIDAR which can identify buried objects, map subsurface structures, and detect changes in elevation. These techniques help assess site properties like bedrock depth, seepage zones, and subsoil competence to inform site investigations and construction plans.
Remote sensing uses electromagnetic radiation to obtain information about objects without direct contact. It has many applications in civil engineering including regional planning, terrain mapping, water resources engineering, transportation analysis, and landslide studies. Remote sensing data is collected spatially and converted to geospatial data through GIS systems. This data provides valuable terrain, geological, and land use information useful for site investigations, infrastructure planning and development, monitoring of dams, reservoirs, and flooding, mineral exploration, urban development, and construction of protective structures.
This document discusses engineering geological mapping and provides details on:
1) The purpose of engineering geological maps is to provide basic information for land use planning, engineering works planning/design/construction/maintenance, and environmental planning.
2) Engineering geological maps represent characteristics of rocks/soils, hydrogeological conditions, geomorphological conditions, and active geodynamic phenomena.
3) Classification of rocks and soils on maps is based on properties indicating physical/engineering characteristics, such as mineralogy, texture, structure, and weathering state.
This document discusses soil modeling and its role in quantifying ecosystem services. It covers:
1. The definition of soil modeling as simulating all soil processes, and its importance in quantifying supporting processes like nutrient cycling and degradation processes like erosion.
2. Key concepts like natural capital, supporting processes, regulating services, and provisioning services as they relate to soil modeling and ecosystem services.
3. Challenges in soil modeling like dealing with soil heterogeneity and uncertainty across spatial and temporal scales. Modern data sources like remote sensing, pedotransfer functions, and proximal soil sensing can help address these challenges by providing model inputs.
Remote sensing and GIS techniques allow large-scale analysis of changes in land use and monitoring of soil characteristics. Conventional soil sampling cannot provide the temporal and spatial data needed. Remote sensing provides continuous monitoring of soil moisture, roughness, texture, and temperature. GIS integrates spatial data and allows analysis of complex spatial problems in agriculture, including soil mapping and assessing land for suitable crop planting. The combined use of remote sensing and GIS allows management of problematic soils like salinity, erosion, and assessing drought and flood risks.
This document discusses the importance of geology and engineering in assessing suitable sites for waste disposal. It emphasizes that geotechnical investigations and geophysical methods are used to understand the subsurface conditions at potential sites. Factors like depth to bedrock, soil permeability, and groundwater flow are considered. Community and environmental impacts are also part of the selection process. Proper site construction, management, and restoration are described as important for safe waste disposal and protecting the environment over the long term.
2. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF SOIL EROSION USING GEOSPATIAL TECHNIQUESDr. Ravinder Jangra
This study assessed areas vulnerable to soil erosion in the upper catchment of the Markanda River in India using geospatial techniques. The study area experiences high rates of soil erosion due to steep slopes, heavy rainfall, fragile soils and limited vegetation cover. GIS and the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) were used to analyze factors influencing erosion risk - including rainfall, soils, slope, drainage density, land use and vegetation. AHP was used to assign weights to each factor. The weighted factors were then combined through spatial modeling to produce a soil erosion vulnerability map. Field verification confirmed the model's identification of erosion and deposition features like gullies, bars and siltation. The map can help prioritize soil conservation efforts.
This document discusses the importance of geotechnical studies for engineering projects. Geotechnical studies provide geotechnical inputs that are incorporated into designs to ensure structures last as long as intended at minimum cost without compromising safety. Investigations depend on the type, size, design and purpose of the project. They are broadly divided into field-based studies like surface and subsurface investigations, and laboratory-based studies. Surface investigations include mapping, while subsurface investigations involve drilling, drifting and geophysical methods. Properties of soil and rock are determined in the field and laboratory. These studies are conducted at various project stages from preliminary to construction. The key aspects investigated include thickness of overburden, depth of bedrock, and presence of weak zones.
Geostatistical approach to the estimation of the uncertainty and spatial vari...IOSR Journals
Abstract. This article presents a case of application of geostatistical methods in geotechnical engineering:
There is a railway platform, going to be built on compressible soils which presents important settlement.
Geotechnical data were analyzed by a geostatistical approach using GIS software to characterize the spatial
variability of the thickness of the compressible soils and their deformation Module.
Then these data were crossed with settlement calculations by oedometer method to estimate the distribution of
soil compaction on the entire site.
Key words: Morocco, Kenitra, geotechnical studies, settlement, geostatistics, kriging.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
1. Road Building Materials:
Materials, Testings, Properties
Analysis
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE
AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
2. What will you learn?
Basically you will learn about types and
characteristics of road building materials, its
testings, mix design method of asphalt for asphalt
pavement, and green road materials
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
3. What competency do you want to expect?
Knowledge competency: You will recognize types
and characteristics of road building materials, its
testings, and mix design method of asphalt for
asphalt pavement.
Skill competency: you are able to bridge
communication between community and
engineering service provider (road
planner/designer/contractor) in regards with
selecting appropriate materials for building road
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
4. Contents
Subgrade/soil
Aggregates
Asphalt and asphalt mixture
Portland cement concrete
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
5. Soil/subgrade
The soil investigation provides pertinent information about
soil and rock for decisions related to the following:
selection of road alignment;
the need for subgrade or embankment foundation
treatment;
investigation of slope stability in cuts and
embankments;
location and design of ditches and culverts;
selection and design of road pavement;
location and evaluation of suitable borrow and
construction materials;
design of foundations for bridges and other structures.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
6. Effect of poor design subgrade
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
7. Preliminary soil investigation
An early phase of the soil investigation encompasses
collection and examination of all existing information. This
may include the identification of soil types from topographic
maps, geological maps, soil maps, aerial photos, and satellite
images, registration of groundwater conditions, and
examination of existing road cuttings.
The visual examination may be coupled with a small amount
of sampling and testing.
The preliminary soil investigation will help to secure a broad
understanding of soil conditions and associated engineering
problems that may be encountered.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
8. Topographic map
Most countries in the world are covered by
topographic maps on the scale of 1: 50,000 to 1:
250,000.
These maps may be used as an aid to geological
interpretation, to identify drainage networks, and to
estimate gradients and earthworks volume.
However, topographic maps may be inaccurate,
and they are often out of date.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
9. Geological map
Most countries are covered by national geological
maps of scale 1: 100,000 or smaller. More detailed
mapping may exist, but few developing or emerging
countries have large-scale maps.
Geological maps normally depict the bedrock up to
the level beneath the soil. In some cases, rock
types can be correlated with particular soil types
but, for the road engineer, the main use of
geological maps is for planning and for providing
background information for the interpretation of
aerial photos.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
10. Soil maps
Soil maps are mainly produced for agricultural
purposes, but only limited areas in developing and
emerging countries are covered. Engineering
particulars cannot be read from agricultural soil
maps, but they are useful for planning purposes,
because they indicate where variations in the soil
types can be expected.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
11. Detailed soil investigation
The detailed soil investigations may be divided into
field investigations and laboratory testing. The field
investigations include geophysical explorations, test
pits and borings, sampling of soils and rocks,
registration of soil profiles, and measurements of
groundwater levels. Laboratory testing includes
testing of representative samples
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
12. Geophysical methods as field soil investigation for
road
Two geophysical methods of soil exploration are used for road
purposes. These are the electrical resistivity and the seismic
refraction methods
The electrical resistivity method makes use of the varying
electrical resistivity of different soils. The resistivity depends
mainly on the content of clay minerals, moisture content, and
the type and concentration of electrolyte in the soil–water. An
increasing content of clay, water, or electrolyte causes
decreasing resistivity. In performing the test, four electrodes
are inserted in the surface of the soil and arranged on line
symmetrical about a point
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
13. Geophysical methods as field soil investigation for
road (continued)
The seismic refraction method relies on the principle that the
velocity of sound in soils and rocks is different for different
materials. A shock wave is created by detonation of a small
explosive charge on the surface of the terrain. The time taken
for the shock wave to reach detectors placed on a line at
different distances from the source are recorded. Providing
the soil is uniform to some depth, these time intervals are
directly proportional to the distance from the point of
detonation. If the sound velocity in a substratum is higher than
in the overburden, then the time interval to more distant points
is shortened because the shock wave travels through the
substratum for some of the distance. By plotting travel time
against distance from the point of detonation, the depth to the
substratum can be calculated. The seismic refraction method
is particularly useful in predicting the depth to bedrock.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
14. Laboratory soil testing
Particle-size distribution
Moisture content
Specific gravity
Atteberg limits
Plasticity
Free swell
Density
Compaction
California bearing ratio
Dynamic cone penetrometer
Soil classification
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
15. Particle-size distribution
The distribution of particle sizes in soils is important
in road engineering since the value of many
properties, such as internal friction, voids content,
wear resistance, and permeability, depend on the
gradation. The distribution of particle sizes larger
than 75m is determined by sieving a sample
through a number of standard sieves
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
17. Analysis
The results of a sieve analysis are normally
displayed in a graph. The sieve seizes are plotted
on a logarithmic scale as the abscissa. The
proportions, by mass, of the soil sample passing the
corresponding sieves are plotted on an arithmetic
scale as the ordinate.
A well-graded soil is one with a gently sloping sieve
curve, indicating that the soil contains a wide range
of particle sizes.
A uniformly graded soil is one with predominance of
single sized particles.
A gap-graded soil has one size range of particles
missing.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
19. Coefficient of uniformity and Coeff. Of
Curvature
The coefficient of uniformity is sometimes used as a
single numerical expression of particle-size
distribution for purposes of succinct communication.
The coefficient is defined as the ratio of the sieve
size through which 60 per cent of the material
passes to that of the sieve size through which 10
per cent passes.
The coefficient of curvature is factor describing
shape of gradation
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
20. D10
Effective Size = D10 10
percent of the sample is
finer than this size
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
25. Water content and specific gravity
The engineering properties of a soil, such as the strength
and deformation characteristics, depend to a very large
degree on the amount of voids and water in the soil. The
moisture content is defined as the mass of water
contained in a soil sample compared with the oven-dry
mass of the sample. It is customarily expressed as a
percentage, although the decimal fraction is used in most
computations.
The specific gravity of a soil is used in the equations
expressing the phase relation of air, water, and solids in a
given volume of material. The specific gravity of a soil is
calculated as the ratio between mass and volume of the
solid particles of a sample. The volume of the particles is
determined by placing the sample in a volumetric bottle
(pycnometer) filled with water and measuring the volume
of displaced water.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
27. Plasticity
The plasticity limits are used to estimate the engineering
behaviour of clayey soils and form an integral part of several
engineering classification systems.
The plasticity limits include the liquid limit (LL) and the plastic
limit (PL), and they are determined by arbitrary tests on the fine
soil fraction passing the 42m sieve.
The LL is determined by performing trials in which a sample is
spread in a metal cup and divided in two by a grooving tool. The
LL is defined as the moisture content of the soil that allows the
divided sample to flow together, when the cup is dropped 25
times on to a hard rubber base.
The PL is determined by alternately pressing together and
rolling a small portion of soil into a thin thread causing
reduction of the moisture content. The PL is defined as the
moisture content of the soil when the thread crumbles.
The difference between the LL and the PL is called the plasticity
index (PI).
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
28. Free swell
Expansive clays are a problem in many regions in
the tropics.
A simple test can be used to verify swelling
tendencies. A measured volume of dry, pulverized
soil is poured into a graduated glass containing
water. After the soil comes to rest at the bottom of
the cylinder, the expanded volume is measured.
The free swell is calculated as the increase of
volume as a percentage of the initial volume.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
29. Density
The field density (in-place density) has a great
influence on the bearing capacity and the potential
for settlement. Soil compaction is therefore an
important component of road construction because
it increases the density. Measurements of field
density are made during soil investigation, but most
measurements are taken to assist with compaction
control during construction.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
30. Sand cone
The sand cone or sand replacement method is
widely used to determine the density of compacted
soils.
A sample is removed by hand excavation of a hole
in the soil. The in situ volume of the sample is then
determined by measuring the volume of dry, free-
flowing sand necessary to fill the hole. A special
cone is used to pour the sand into the hole. The dry
mass of the sample is determined in the laboratory.
The method is not recommended for soils that are
soft, friable or in a saturated condition. The method
is rather time-consuming
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
32. Compaction
The level of compaction to be achieved in the field
during construction is normally specified as a
percentage of the maximum dry density obtained in
a compaction test in the laboratory. The traditional
laboratory tests are the „standard‟ and the „modified‟
AASHTO compaction or the „light‟ and „heavy‟
British Standard (BS) compaction. They are also
known as standard and modified „proctor tests‟ after
the person who invented the laboratory compaction
tests.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
39. California bearing ratio
The California bearing ratio (CBR) test is the
most common test for evaluating the
bearing capacity of subgrade soils.
It measures the force needed to cause a
plunger to penetrate 2.5 or 5mm into a soil
sample compacted into a 2-litre cylindrical
mould with a diameter of 150 mm.
The measured force is taken as a
percentage of a standard force.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
41. CBR value
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to
penetrate a soil mass with standard circular piston
at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for the
corresponding penetration of a standard material.
The C.B.R. values are usually calculated for
penetration of 2.5 mm and 5 mm. Generally the
C.B.R. value at 2.5 mm will be greater that at 5 mm
and in such a case/the former shall be taken as
C.B.R. for design purpose. If C.B.R. for 5 mm
exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test should be
repeated. If identical results follow, the C.B.R.
corresponding to 5 mm penetration should be taken
for design.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
42. CBR value
C.B.R. = (Test load/Standard load) * 100
Penetration of Standard load
plunger (mm) (kg)
2.5 1370
5 2055
7.5 2630
10.0 3180
12.5 3600
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
44. Quick estimation of CBR
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
45. Dynamic cone penetrometer
The dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) is a quick
and cheap alternative to in situ CBR tests. A 30o
steel cone is forced into the soil by use of a drop
hammer, and the penetration is measured in
millimetres per blow. Empirical relations between
penetration and CBR may be derived
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
55. Aggregates
Mineral aggregates make up 90 to 95% of a HMA
mix by weight or approximately 75 to 85% by
volume. Their physical characteristics are
responsible for providing a strong aggregate
structure to resist deformation due to repeated load
applications.
Aggregate is defined as “a granular material of
mineral composition such as sand, gravel, shell,
slag, or crushed stone, used with cementing
medium to form mortars or concrete or alone as in
base courses, railroad ballasts, etc.”
These aggregates can be divided into three main
categories natural, processed, and synthetic
(artificial) aggregates.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
56. Natural aggregates
Natural aggregates are mined from river or glacial
deposits. They are frequently referred to as pit- or
bank-run materials. Gravel and sand are examples
of natural aggregates. Gravel is normally defined as
aggregates passing the 3 in. (75 mm) sieve and
retained on the No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. Sand is
usually defined as aggregate passing the No. 4
sieve with the silt and clay fraction passing the No.
200 (0.075 mm) sieve. These aggregates in their
natural form tend to be smooth and round.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
57. Processed aggregates
Processed materials include gravel or stones that
have been crushed, washed, screened, or
otherwise treated to enhance the performance of
HMAC. Processed materials tend to be more
angular and better graded.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
58. Synthetic aggregates
Synthetic aggregates are not mined or quarried.
Rather, they are manufactured through the
application of physical and/or chemical processes
as either a principal product or a by-product. They
are often used to improve the skid resistance of
HMAC. Blast furnace slag, lightweight expanded
clay, shale or slate are examples of synthetic
aggregates
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
59. Testing of aggregates: Particle size
analysis
Particle size analysis on aggregates is carried out using
the same procedure as described for soils. Circular
sieves with a frame diameter of 200mm are normally used
for analysis of soils and fine aggregate. However, for
analysis of coarse aggregate it is useful to employ sieves
with a frame diameter of 300 mm or more, because bigger
samples are needed to obtain representative results. An
important use of the sieve curve is for estimating the
volume occupied by different fractions of the soil.
In some types of natural gravel, particularly laterite, there
may be a significant difference between the specific
gravity of the coarse and the fine particles. For these
types of soils, it may be useful to convert mass
proportions to volume proportions when plotting the
sieve curve
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
60. Testing of aggregates: Specific gravity
The specific gravity of aggregates is used for
converting mass to volume. Volume calculations of
aggregates are primarily used in connection with
mix design for cement and asphaltic concrete. The
test procedure is similar to that described for soils,
except that bigger samples and bigger pycnometers
are needed for coarse aggregate. Instead of using
a volumetric bottle, the volume of the sample may
be determined by placing the sample in a wire
basket and weighing it before and after immersing
in water.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
62. Water absorption
High porosity of aggregates may be a sign of low
mechanical strength. Furthermore, aggregates with
high porosity may be difficult and costly to dry
during processing of asphalt hot mix. The porosity
is estimated by measuring the water absorption.
This is determined by immersing a dry sample in
water for 24h. The surfaces of the particles are then
dried by rolling the sample gently in a dry cloth. The
water absorption is calculated as the difference in
mass between the saturated, surface-dry sample
and the dry sample as a percentage of the mass of
the dry sample
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
64. Sand equivalent test
The sand equivalent test is useful for evaluating the
plastic properties of the sand fraction of aggregates.
A volume of damp aggregate passing the 4.75mm
sieve is measured. The material should not be dried
before testing as this may change its properties.
The sample and a quantity of flocculating (calcium
chloride) solution are poured into a graduated glass
and agitated. After a prescribed sedimentation
period, the height of sand and the height of
flocculated clay are determined.
The sand equivalent (SE) is the height of sand as a
percentage of the total height of sand and
flocculated clay in the glass.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
66. CBR test
The CBR test is unsuitable for testing of crushed
stone and coarse gravel, because of the need for
removing particles bigger than 20mm. For design
purposes, the CBR is sometimes estimated based,
not on testing, but on previous experience
combined with evaluation of the shape of the
particle-size distribution curve
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
67. Particle shape
The particle shape influences the compaction and strength
characteristics of aggregate mixtures. Cubic particles are less
workable but more stable than flaky and elongated particles.
The particle shape test is performed on coarse particles, for
example, particles retained on the 6mm sieve. Each particle is
measured using a length gauge. Particles with a smallest
dimension less than 0.6 of their mean size are classified as
„flaky‟. Particles with a largest dimension more than 1.8 times
their mean size are classified as „elongated‟. The mean size is
defined as the mean of the two sieve sizes between which the
particle is retained in a sieve analysis. The percentage by
mass of flaky particles in a sample is called the „flakiness
index‟.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
69. Soundness
The soundness test is used as part of the materials
survey and design process to estimate the
soundness of aggregate when subjected to
weathering. The test subjects samples to repeated
immersion in saturated solutions of sodium or
magnesium sulphate, followed by drying. The
internal expansive force, derived from the
rehydration of the salt upon re-immersion,
simulates the weathering action. The sample is
sieved before and after the test, and the percentage
of loss for each fraction is calculated.
The precision of the test is poor, and it is not usually
considered for outright rejection of aggregates
without confirmation by other tests
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
70. Field density
Field density tests are used in construction to
evaluate the compaction achieved in aggregate
base and sub-base. Common methods are sand
cone and nuclear density gauge, as described
earlier. However, measurements of field density are
not very precise when dealing with coarse material.
In some countries, this has led to the use of
method-specifications for compaction instead of
end-product specifications
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
71. Los Angeles abrasion test
The los angeles abrasion test gives an indication of
the resistance to abrasion in combination with the
impact strength of coarse aggregates. The test is
used for selecting the most suitable aggregate
sources for quarrying. A sample is loaded together
with a number of steel balls into a steel drum, which
revolves on a horizontal axis. The los angeles
abrasion value is the percentages of fines passing
the 1.7 mm sieve after a specified number of
revolutions of the drum.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
73. Higher water absorption, poorer abrasion resistance
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
74. Affinity for bitumen/asphalt
Different test methods exist for determining the
resistance to stripping, that is, the separation of a
bitumen film from the aggregate resulting from the
action of water.
However, none of the methods are very reliable. In
the simplest method, the resistance to stripping is
determined by immersing an uncompacted sample
of bitumencoated aggregate in water. At the end of
a soaking period, the percentage of surface
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
75. Asphalt
Asphalt pavements consist of selected mineral
aggregates bound together by a bituminous binder.
Asphalt layer is used as different asphalt pavement
types, ranging from thin surface dressings to thick
layers of asphalt concrete.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
76. Bituminous binders
Bitumen or asphalt cement is a black to dark brown
sticky material, composed principally of high
molecular-weight hydrocarbons.
It can be found as a component of natural rock
asphalt, but most bitumen is derived from the
distillation of crude oil.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
77. Basic Characteristics of Bitumen
Bitumen is a thermoplastic material that gradually
softens, and eventually liquefies when heated.
Bitumen is characterized by its consistency at
certain temperatures.
Traditionally, the consistency is measured by a
penetration test, a softening point test and a
viscosity test.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
79. Bitumen Tests
Penetration test. Penetration is the number of units of 0.1 mm
penetration depth achieved during the penetration test
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
80. Softening points test
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
81. Ductility test
Ductility is the number of centimeters a standard briquette of
asphalt cement will stretch before breaking
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
82. Flash point
Flash point is the temperature to which asphalt cement may
be heated without the danger of causing an instantaneous
flash in the presence of an open flame
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
83. Solubility test
Solubility is the percentage of an asphalt cement
sample that will dissolve in trichloroethylene. In this
procedure, an asphalt cement sample is dissolved
in trichloroethylene and then filtered through a
glass-fiber pad where the weight of the insoluble
material is measured. The solubility is calculated by
dividing the weight of the dissolved portion by the
total weight of the asphalt cement sample. This test
is used to check for contamination in asphalt
cement. Most specifications require a minimum of
99% solubility in trichloroethylene
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
85. Bitumen grade
Bitumen is available commercially in several
standard grades. In many countries, the grades are
based on the penetration value. The grade is
usually expressed in a penetration value bracket,
for example, 80–100. The British Standard (BS)
specifies 10 different grades ranging from pen 15 to
pen 450. Earlier standards in the United States
specified five types, with pen 40–50 as the hardest
and pen 200–300 as the softest. In Indonesia used
bitumen has penetration grade 60-80.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
86. Volumetric Properties of Asphalt Mixtures
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
87. Mass – volume relationship diagram
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
94. Portland cemen concretet (PCC)
PCC is composed of cement paste and aggregates.
The cement paste consists of Portland cement
mixed with water while the aggregates are
composed of fine and coarse fractions.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
96. Portland cement
Portland cement is composed of approximately 60
to 65% lime (CaO), 20 to 25% silica (SiO2), and 7
to 12% iron oxide (Fe2O3) and alumina (Al2O3).
The percentages of the different components may
be varied to meet different physical and chemical
requirements based on its intended use
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
97. Aggregate
Particle size distribution can be further divided into coarse-
aggregate and fine aggregate grading. The particle size and
distribution has an impact on the workability of the mix. In
general, the larger the maximum particle size, the less Portland
cement is necessary. Particle shape and surface texture have a
greater impact on the properties of fresh concrete than they do
on the properties of hardened concrete. The rougher and more
angular the particles are, the more water is required to produce
workable concrete. However, rougher and more angular
particles tend to have a stronger bond with the cement and
water mixture. Voids between aggregates also increase with
increased aggregate angularity. Specific gravity is not generally
considered a measure of aggregate quality, but is required in
the mix design process. Absorption and surface moisture are
used to determine the aggregate’s appetite for moisture and its
current moisture condition. The results of these tests are used
to control concrete batch weights
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
98. Water, chemical admixtures
Almost all naturally occurring water that is safe for
drinking should be suitable for making PCC.
Chemical admixtures may be used to enhance
Portland cement properties based on the
requirements for a specific application. The primary
reasons for using admixtures are to reduce the cost
of concrete construction, to enhance certain
concrete properties, and to ensure the quality of
concrete during the different stages of construction.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
99. Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the quantity of
mixing water required to produce concrete of a specific slump,
reduce the water– cement ratio, or increase slump. Regular
water reducers may decrease the water content by 5 to 10%.
High-range water reducers (also called Superplasticizers) may
decrease the water content by 12 to 30%. While high-range
water reducers are typically more effective than regular water
reducers, they are more expensive. Water reducers typically
produce an increase in strength because of the reduction in
the water– cement ratio. The effectiveness of water reducers
is dependent on its chemical composition, concrete
temperature, cement composition, cement fineness, cement
content, and the presence of other admixtures. The
effectiveness of water reducersdiminishes with time after it is
introduced into the batch.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
100. Retarding admixtures are used to slow down the
rate at which concrete sets. Retarders may be used
tocomp ensate for accelerated setting due to hot
weather or delay initial set for prolonged concrete
placements. The presence of retarders may reduce
early (first few days) strength gain. Accelerating
admixtures have the opposite effect from retarding
admixtures in that they increase early strength gain.
However, the use of accelerating admixtures may
lead to increase in drying shrinkage, potential
reinforcement corrosion, discoloration, and scaling.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
101. Fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, and
condensed silica fume are commonly used mineral
admixtures.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
102. Finely divided mineral admixtures
Finely divided mineral admixtures are powdered or
pulverized materials added to PCC to enhance the
properties of fresh and/or hardened concrete. They
may be broadly put into four categories:
Cementitious materials,
Pozzolanic materials,
Pozzolanic and cementitious materials,
Inert materials.
MANAGEMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT