Psychology power point the processes of Learning and theories of Learning

1. CHAPTER TWO
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
PROCESS
Instructor: Ageze B

2. Definition of learning
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a
result of experience or practice. That is through interaction with the
environment.
The above definition emphasizes four attributes of learning:
 The above definition emphasizes four attributes of
learning as a process.
o Learning is a permanent change in behaviour. It does not
include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and use of
intoxication
o Learning is not directly observable but manifests in the
activities of the individual
o Learning results in some change of enduring nature
o Learning depends on practice and experience
• John B. Watson (1878-1958) was the first to study how the process of
learning affects our behavior, and he formed the school of thought known
as Behaviorism.

3. Characteristics of learning
• Yoakman and Simpson have described the following major important characteristics of
learning.
• Learning:-
1. is continuous modification of behavior throughout life.
 Our habits, skills, knowledge, attitudes, interests and characteristics are largely the result of
learning.
2. is pervasive, it reaches into all aspects of human life.
3. involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually.
4. is often a change in the organization of experiences.
5. is responsive to incentives.
6. is an active process.
7. is purposeful.
8. depends on maturation and motivation.
9. learning is multifaceted.

4. Principles of learning
Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn.
Students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice
and exercise.
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that
learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase.
Things most recently learned are best remembered.
The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than
from a substitute.
Individuals must have some abilities and skills that may help them to learn.
Things freely learned are best learned - the greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals,
the higher the intellectual and moral advancement.

5. Factors Influencing Learning
what do you think are the factors the affect your learning?
1. Motivation: The learner‘s motivation matters the effectiveness of learning.
The stronger and clearer the motives for learning, the greater are the effort to
learn. When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes enthusiastic.
2. Intelligence: the more the individual is intelligent, the better she/he learns.
3. Maturation: Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a
given task. Example, The child has to be mature before she/he is able to learn.
4. Physical condition of the learner: The learner should be in a good health
status to learn. Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the
body, loss of sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning.

6. Cont”d
5. Good working conditions – absence or presence of fresh air, light, comfortable
surroundings, moderate temperature, absence of distractions like noise and learning
aids determine learning effectiveness.
6. Psychological wellbeing of the learner: individual‘s psychological states like
worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning. Whereas self-
respect, self reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective learning.
7. Background experiences: having background experiences affect effectiveness of
learning. All related facts and understandings from a previously learned course
should be brought to new learning.
8. Length of the working period: Learning periods should neither be too short nor
too long. Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in learning.

7. Modes of learning
• In learning a new thing, we follow different ways.
There are three main ways of learning.
1. Learning by trial and error
• It is a random attempt to learn a new problem.
• Some of these attempts may result in success but others
may not.
• The right response to a situation is arrived at by chance,
by constant trial and by making repeated errors.
• It is very common mode of learning in animals.
• Trial and error learning is slow, wasteful and
unintelligent

8. Learning by conditioning
• It is a process in which a response or action due to
some original stimulus becomes transferred to
another stimulus which occurs at the same time or
shortly after the original stimulus.

9. Learning by observation and insight
 It involves mental exploration and understanding of
what is being learned.
 It requires the ability to find out relationships.
 The learner uses his past experiences and his ability
to generate new ideas.

10. Theories of learning:
1.Behavioral theory of learning:
 It believes that learning occurs as a result of stimulus
response associations
Emphasize on observable behaviors, seek laws to
govern all organisms, and provide explanations which
focus on consequences.
Behaviorists also differ among themselves with
respect to their views about the role of reinforcement
in learning.

11. Theories of learning Cont”d
 There are two major behavioral theories of learning. They are
known as classical and operant Conditioning .
Both models of learning take place
– When a stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus
– Stimulus becomes associated with particular consequences
For example: a baby learns to associate the sight of
a feeding bottle with milk

12. Classical Conditioning
 Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or
physiological responses such as fear, increased heartbeat, salivation or
sweating …
 sometimes called respondents because they are automatic responses to
stimuli.
 Classical Conditioning, was actually discovered accidentally by Ivan
Pavlov (1849-1936).
 The theory of classical conditioning represents a process in which a neutral
stimulus by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics
of natural stimulus.
 Stimulus is anything that can directly influence behavior or conscious
experience

13. Theories of learning cont.…
• Classical conditioning involves what are known as conditioned reflexes.
• An example of this is a knee-jerk‘ reflex. This reflex isn‘t controlled by
the brain, but by the spinal cord, and it is straight forward response to the
stimulus.
• Another example of a reflex is the production of saliva in a response to
food when you are hungry, and it was this response which Pavlov first
investigated when he discovered classical conditioning.

14. cont..
• In One of Pavlov’s experiments, Pavlov began by sounding a
tuning bell and recording a dog’s response. As expected there
was no salivation. At this point, the sounding of tuning bell was a
neutral stimulus-stimulus not connected to a response.
• Because it brought forth no salivation, then Pavlov fed the
hungry dog, the response was salivation. In the experiment the
food was an unconditioned stimulus (us) stimulus that
automatically produces an emotional or physiological response-
because no prior training or “conditioning” was needed to
establish the natural connection between food and salivation.

15. Theories of learning cont..
• The salivation was unconditioned response ( UR) Pavlov did this
experiment by contiguous pairing of the bell sound with food.
• At the beginning of the experiment he sounded the bell and then
quickly fed the dog, after he repeated this several times, the dog
began to salivate after hearing the sound but before receiving the
food.
• Now the sound had become a conditioned stimulus (CS) – Stimulus
that evokes emotional or physiological response after conditioning.
• The response of salivation after bell sound is called conditioned
response, which is a learned response to a previously neutral
stimulus.

19. Cont…
Terminology of Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that can elicit the
responses with out any learning.( The response to unconditioned
stimulus is inborn).
Example: meat powder.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR): It is an unlearned, inborn
reaction to the unconditioned stimulus
Example: salivation because of food

20. • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The metronome (neutral stimulus) was
originally unable to elicit the response of salivation. But it acquired
the ability to elicit the response because it was paired with the
unconditioned stimulus. E.g. Bell
• Conditioned Response (CR): A response that is similar or identical
to the unconditioned response that comes to be elicited by a
conditioned stimulus.
Example: salivation because of Bell

21. Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition- The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the
conditioned response—for example, the dog learning to
salivate at the sound of the bell
2. Extinction- refers to the weakening of the conditioned
response (CR) in the absence of unconditioned stimulus(US).
Extinction simply means the process of unlearning a learned
response because of the removal of the original source of
learning i.e. Us.

22. 3. Generalization- a process in which a conditioned response
to a stimulus is generalized to similar category of the stimuli.
4. Discrimination – refers to when the organism responds to
certain stimuli but not others. The ability to respond to one
tone but not others that are similar by making sure that us
(food) always followed only by one tone.
5. Spontaneous Recovery, The return of an extinguished
response following a rest period, when an animal is returned in
the original Circumstances

23. Spontaneous Recovery
• The reappearance. After a rest period, of an
extinguished conditioned response.

24. Example
Suppose a one-year old child is playing with a toy near
an electrical out-let. He sticks part of the toy into the
outlet. He gets shocked, becomes frightened, and begins
to cry. For several days after that experience, he shows
fear when his mother gives him the toy and he refuses to
play with it. What are the UCS? UCR? CS? CR? Show
in diagram there association into three stages of
processes?
a) UCS___________________________________
b) UCR___________________________________
c) CS____________________________________
d) CR___________________________________
Could you please explain of something you learned
through classical conditioning?

25. Applications of classical conditioning
Developing good habits: principles of classical conditioning can
be used for developing good habits in children such as
cleanliness, respect for elders and punctuality etc.
Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fear. All
learning is acquired in the social environment.
Training of animals.
Use in psychotherapy. The principles of classical conditioning
are used in reconditioning emotional fears in mental patients.
Developing positive attitude: classical conditioning can be used
to develop favourable or unfavourable attitude towards
something.

26. Theory of operant conditioning (B.F. skinner 1904-
1990) (Instrumental learning):
• Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in which the
consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that
the behavior will occur.
• Skinner attaches greater importance to operant behavior which is
primarily concerned with response rather than stimuli.
• As a result it is known as R-type conditioning. Thus skinner
changed the usual S-R formula in to on R-S formula
• Note: Operant conditioning is Learning from the consequence of
our behavior.

27. Principles of Operant conditioning
 (Learning from the consequence of behaviors)
• Several operations are involved in the process of operant
conditioning.
• Some of the operant operations include the following
1. Shaping- It refers to the process of reinforcing or rewarding
each small steps of progress forward a desired goal or
behavior. In short, it is successive approximation to the desired
behavior.

28. Cont…
2. Extinction: In operant conditioning, extinction is the elimination of
a learned behavior by discontinuing the rein forcer of that behavior.
• Example: when you withdraw a reinforcement you were giving to a
child’s for better performance, the child will decrease his/her/
responses.
3. Spontaneous Recovery: (which is also explained in classical
conditioning). Simply meant the return of an extinguished response
following a rest of period.
Example: when you restart the reinforcement that you quit the
child will start to perform better.

29. Cont…
4. Generalization: giving the same response for similar stimuli.
5. Discrimination -is learning that a behavior will be reinforced in
one situation but not in another.
6. Reinforcement-refers to the process by which a stimulus or an
event strengthen or increases the probability of an event that it
follows.
• For example, if you praise a students’ correct responses
immediately and the student increase correct responses.

30. Cont…
• There are two types of reinforcements:
A. Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
A. Positive reinforcement- refers to events that are presented after a
response has been Performed and that increase the behavior or activity
they follow.
• positive reinforcement - Any consequence of behavior that leads to an
increase in the probability of its occurrence.
• Positive reinforcement can be classified as either primary or secondary
reinforcement:
• Example: a student is provided with 5 extra bonus marks for performing
a homework

31. Cont…
1. Primary reinforcement- The use of reinforcer that is innately
satisfying. For example, Food, water, warmth and security, sexual
satisfaction.
2. Secondary reinforcement- The use of reinforcers that are learned or
conditioned or simply they acquire their positive value through
experience or learning. Include: facial expression, Getting pat on the
back, Proximity, Words (praise) & eye contact and Privileges .
B. Negative reinforcement- -The frequency of a behavior increases
because it is followed by the removal of an aversive,(unpleasant) stimulus.
Example: you will lose 2 marks for not completing your home work.
You will complete your task for not losing your mark.

32. Schedules of reinforcement
• It is a ‘timetables” that determine when a behavior
will reinforced. Skinner identified two major types
of reinforcement schedules.
• When a response is first acquired, learning is
usually most rapid if the response is reinforced
each time it occurs. This procedure is called
continuous reinforcement. However, once a
response has become reliable, it will be more
resistant to extinction if it is rewarded on an
intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement,
which involves reinforcing only some responses, not
all of them.

33. Intermittent reinforcement schedule
• There are two basic types of intermittent reinforcement schedules.
• Interval schedule and Ratio schedule
1. Interval schedule: refers to the reinforcement given based up on the
amount of time that passes between reinforces.
2. Ratio Schedule: reinforcement given based on the number of
responses learners give between reinforces.
• Interval and ratio schedules may be either fixed (predictable) or
various(unpredictable)

34. There are four types of intermittent schedules.
1. Fixed-ratio schedules: A fixed ratio schedule of
reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses.
Employers to increase productivity often use fixed ratio
schedules.
• An interesting feature of a fixed ratio schedule is that
performance sometimes drops off just after reinforcement.
• E.g. A boy must solve 5 problems to get candy.
A man is paid after completing a given amount of work.

35. 2. Variable-Ratio Schedule
variable ratio schedule of reinforcement occurs after
some average number of responses, but the number varies
from reinforcement to reinforcement.
A variable ratio schedule of produces extremely high
steady rates of responding. The responses are more
resistant to extinction than when a fixed ratio schedule is
used.
E.g. Gambling
Slot machines

36. 3. Fixed Interval Schedule: A fixed interval schedule
of reinforcement occurs only if a fixed amount of time
has passed since the previous reinforcer.
Examples: -A person being paid by hour
- Regular meals taken in the day
4. Variable Interval Schedule: A variable interval
schedule of reinforcement occurs only if a variable
amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer
Examples: – fishing , Dialing a phone

37. 7.Punishment
 presenting unpleasant stimulus that decreases the
probability of behavior to occur again.
• punishment can be negative or positive.
Positive punishment: presenting something unpleasant to
decrease the likelihood of behavior to occur again
• Example: spanking a child for misbehaving
Negative punishment: removal of pleasant stimuli to
decrease the likelihood of behavior to occur again
• Example: not allowing a child to watch TV for misbehaving

38. When Punishment works:
• Immediacy – When punishment follows
immediately after the behavior to be punished.
• Consistency- when punishment is inconsistent the
behaviour being punished is intermittently
reinforced and therefore becomes resistant to
extinction.
• Intensity- In general terms severe punishments are
more effective than mild ones. But, there are
studies that indicate that even less intense
punishments are effective provided that they are
applied immediately and consistently.

39. when punishment fails
 People often administer punishment inappropriately or mindlessly
 The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear or rage.
Being physically punished in childhood is a risk factor for depression,
low self-esteem, violent behavior and many other problems.
 The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary, depending
heavily on the presence of the punishing person or circumstances.
 Most behavior is hard to punish immediately.
 Punishment conveys little information. An action intended to punish
may instead be reinforcing because it brings attention.

40. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
• Social learning theory also known as observational learning,
imitation or modeling
• The founder of the theory was Albert Bandura.
• The theory claims that a major part of human learning takes
place through observing the behavior of another person
called a model.
• Social Learning : Behavioral and Cognitive Learning
• The term model may refer to an actual person whose
behavior serves as a stimulus for an observer’s response.

41. Types of Models
• Real life models: These are really existing models such as
parents, teachers, friends, heroes of films, sport stars and
other most successful persons in life.
• Symbolic models: These are representatives of real life
models.
• They include materials and other works of individuals.
• Not only negative behaviors are learned through
observational learning. We learn positive behaviors too.

42. Processes of Learning through Imitation
Attention
• Individuals cannot learn much by observation unless they perceive and
attend to the significant features of the modeled behavior.
Retention
• In order to reproduce the modelled behaviour, individuals must encode
the information into long-term memory. Therefore, the information will
be retrieval.
Reproduction
• The observer must be able to reproduce the model’s behavior.
• If it is a physical behaviour, the observer must learn and posses the
physical capabilities of the modeled behavior.
Motivation or Reinforcement
• The observer expects to receive positive reinforcements for the modeled
behavior.

43. Types of Reinforcement
Imitation may be reinforced in two ways
• Direct Reinforcement – it involves the direct
reinforcement of the learner by the model.
• For example, a child is praised for imitating
the behavior of his sister.
• Vicarious Reinforcement – it involves
obtained a secondhand type of satisfaction
from imitating.

44. Cognitive Learning Theories
• Cognitive theorists believe that learning is the result of our
attempt to make sense of the world using our all mental tools.
• Cognitive theorists explain that, the way we think, out
knowledge, expectations, feelings and interaction with others
influence how and what we learn.
• They emphasize on internal process.
• Learning Explained as “Recall” of stored information
• Mind as a "Black Box“
1. Latent learning
2. Insight learning
• Latent Learning: ‘Latent’ means hidden and thus latent
learning is learning that occurs but is not evident in behavior
until later, when conditions for its appearance are favorable

45. Insight Learning
“Aha Learning”
• It is cognitive process whereby we reorganize our perception of a problem.
• It doesn‘t depend on conditioning of particular behaviors for its occurrence.
• Sometimes, for example, people even wake from sleep with the solution to a
problem that they had not been able to solve during the day.
• In a typical insight situation a problem is posed, a period follows during
where no apparent progress is made, and then the solution comes suddenly.
What has been learned in insight learning can also be applied easily to other
similar situations.
Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually experience a good
feeling called an 'aha' experience.

46. Insight Learning
• A sudden and often novel realization of the
solution to a problem.

47. The Insight Learning
“Aha” Learning

48. Thank you
Any
question?