There are several theories that describe the process of learning physical skills: 1. Fitts and Posner's stages of learning include cognitive, associative, and autonomous phases. 2. Schmidt's schema theory proposes that learning involves gathering information from movements and constructing recall and recognition schemas. 3. Social learning theory and closed-loop theory emphasize the role of observation, feedback, and refining movements based on results. 4. Kolb and Whitmore describe learning cycles from unconscious incompetence to unconscious competence. 5. Transfer of learning can occur between skills, from theory to practice, and during training versus competition, with effects that are negative, zero, positive, direct, or bilateral.

1. Learning process of physical
skills

2. Theory
Learning Phases-Fitts & Posner (1967)1
2
3
4 Schema Theory-Schmidt (1975)
Closed Loop Theory-Adam (1971)
Social learning Theory-Adam (1961)

3. Theory
Learning Cycle-Kolb (1984)5
6
7
8
Learning Cycle-Whitmore(1984)
Effects of transfer of learning-Galligan(2000)
Transfer of learning-Galligan(2000)

4. Learning Phases-Fitts & Posner
There are three stages to learning a new skill:
 Cognitive phase - Identification and development
of the component parts of the skill - involves
formation of a mental picture of the skill.
 Associative phase - Linking the component parts
into a smooth action - involves practicing the skill and
using feedback to perfect the skill.
 Autonomous phase - Developing the learned skill
so that it becomes automatic - involves little or no
conscious thought or attention whilst performing the
skill - not all performers reach this stage

5. Cognitive phase
 This phase, sometimes referred to as the
cognitive stage, occurs when the beginning
athlete is attempting to understand the basic
task. Challenges include how to hold the
racquet, how to place the feet, and where the
boundaries are.
 Beginners are not always aware of what they
did wrong, nor do they know how to correct
errors. They need basic, specific instruction
and feedback during this phase.

6. Associative phase
 At this stage the athlete understands the
fundamentals of the skill and is in the process of
refining the skill. They experience fewer errors and
can detect some of them on their own. Performances
are more consistent and learners begin to know what
is relevant and what is not.
 Here the athlete refines what is needed to
accomplish the objective of the skill regardless of the
situation. They also begin to learn how to diversify
responses for open skills.

7. Autonomous phase
 This is the last of the stages of learning. At this point
the skill is well learned. The athlete performs the skill
automatically without having to focus on execution.
There are few errors and athletes can detect and know
how to correct them. They can concentrate more on
other aspects of the game.
 As athletes transition from learning the goal of the skill
to perfecting it, coaches can diversify instruction and
practice conditions.
 For closed skills, practices should be structured to
match the conditions of competition. For open skills,
the coach must systematically vary the conditions
under which the skill is being learned and performed in
preparation for competition.

8. Social learning Theory-Adam
 Three concepts:
 people can learn through observation.
 mental states are an essential part of this process.

it will not necessarily result in a change of behavior.
 Three basic models of observational learning:
 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating
or acting out a behavior.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and
explanations of a behavior.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters
displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or
online media .

9. Closed Loop Theory-Adam
 Two elements:
 Perceptual trace - a reference model acquired
through practice.
 Memory trace - responsible for initiating the
movement.
 The key feature of this theory is the role of
feedback:
 Analyze the reference model actions, the result of
those actions and the desired goals.
 Refine the reference model to produce the required
actions to achieve the desired goals.

10. Schema Theory-Schmidt
 Schmidt's theory was based on the view that actions are not
stored rather we refer to abstract relationships or rules about
movement.
 Schmidt's schema is based on the theory that that every time
a movement is conducted four pieces of information are
gathered:
 the initial conditions - starting point
 certain aspects of the motor action - how fast, how high
 the results of the action - success or failure

the sensory consequences of the action - how it felt
 Relationships between these items of information are used to
construct a recall schema and a recognition schema. The
Recall schema is based on initial conditions and the results
and is used to generate a motor program to address a new
goal. The recognition schema is based on sensory actions and
the outcome.

11. Learning Cycle-Kolb
 Kolb developed a theory of experiential learning that
can give us a useful model by which to develop our
learning. The model comprises of four stages:
 Concrete Experience - doing or having an experience
 Reflective Observation - reviewing & reflecting on the
experience
 Abstract Conceptualization - concluding & learning from the
experience
 Active Experimentation - planning & trying out what you have
learned
 Kolb's learning styles

12. Learning Cycle-Kolb

13. Whitmore Learning Cycle
 Whitmore identified that our learning cycle
generally takes us through four stages:
 Unconscious incompetence - no understanding
 Conscious incompetence - low performance,
recognition of flaws and weak areas
 Conscious competence - improved performance,
conscious effort
 Unconscious competence - higher performance,
natural automatic effort

14. Transfer of learning
 Galligan suggests that the transfer of learning can
take place in the following ways:
 Skill to skill
 This is where a skill developed in one sport has an influence
on a skill in another sport. If the influence is on a new skill being
developed then this is said to be proactive and if the
influence is on a previously learned skill then this is said to be
retroactive.
 Theory to practice

The transfer of theoretical skills into practice.
 Training to competition
 The transfer of skills developed in training into the competition
situation.

15. Effects of transfer of
learning
 Galligan suggests that the effects of transfer
can be:
 Negative
 Where a skill developed in one sport hinders the performance
of a skill in another sport.
 Zero
 Where a skill in one sport has no impact on the learning of a
new sport.
 Positive
 Where a skill developed in one sport helps the performance of
a skill in another sport.
 Direct
 Where a skill can be taken directly from sport to another.
 Bilateral
 Transfer of a skill from side of the body to the other - use left
and right.