1. Skill A cquisition
A ll you need to know!

2. Instr uctions
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3. Topics
 Skill & A bility
 Motivation & A r ousal
 Infor mation Pr ocessing
 Lear ning Theor ies
 Memor y  Reinfor cement
 Reaction Time  Phases of Lear ning
 Feedback  Pr actice
 Motor Pr ogr ammes & Schema  Guidance
 Loop Contr ol  Tr ansfer

4. Skill & A bility
 Skill – characteristics
The le a rne d a bility to bring a bo ut p re -d e te rm ine d re s ults with m a x im um c e rta inty o fte n with th
 Skill Classifications
 A bility – characteristics
 Gr oss Motor
 Psychomotor

5. Skilful Characteristics
Learnt Goal Directed
Aesthetic
SKILL
Co-ordinated
Technical
model
Controlled Consistent

6. Characteristics explained!
 Aesthetic - Graceful gymnastics routine
 Fluent - Movements ease into each
other
 Technical Model - Resembles a technique
 Goal Directed - Understanding what
needs to be done!
 Learnt - Tennis player is taught a
serve & practices
 Consistent - Performance is
repeated with regularity
 Controlled - Performance is under
control of performer

7. Skill Classifications
 Open / Closed /
 High / Low Organisation /
 Continuity Continuum / /
 Gross / Fine /
 Pacing Continuum /

8. Environmental Factors
Open Closed
 Skill is affected by  Skill is not affected
the environment by the environment
(weather/opposition  Skill is self paced
)  Skill is habitual
 Skill is externally  Fixed Practice
paced method
 Performer is
reactive

9. Organisation Classification
High Low
 Closely linked  Subroutines can be
subroutines separated
 Not easily broken  Skill is easily broken
down down into parts
 Practiced as a whole
 Examples  Examples
Cartwheel Running Swimming Triple Jump

10. Continuity Continuum
Discr ete Ser ial Continuous
 Obvious  Discrete  No clear
start and elements beginning or
end to the linked end to the
movement together skill
 Example
Diving  Example  Example
Tr iple Jump Cycling

11. Muscles Used
Gr oss Fine
 Large muscle  Small muscle
groups used. groups used.
 Large movements  Small/fine
 Examples movements
Running  Examples
Kicking Pistol shooting
Darts

12. Pacing Continuum
Exter nal Self
 Action is controlled  Action is controlled
by external factors. by performer
 Performer is not in  Performer is in
control of the rate control of the rate
of the action of the action
 Often open skills  Often closed skills
 Examples  Examples
Tackle Rafting Tennis Serve
Golf shot

13. Characteristics of A bility
 Ability is………
 Genetic
 Comes from our parents
 Stable
 We don’t lose it!
 Foundation for skill
 Base for learning skills

14. Psychomotor A bility
 Psycho - Processing
information
 Motor - Movement
 Therefore ; processing information
then moving.
 Eg – a fielder in cricket throwing the ball
at the stumps.
 P – Where am I in relation to the stumps?
M – Throwing the ball at the stumps!

15. Gross Motor A bility
 Movement using large muscle groups.
 Types include;
 Speed
 Strength
 Stamina
 Balance
 Flexibility
 Co-ordination

16. Information Pr ocessing
 Basic
 Schmidt’s Model
 Welford's Model
 Whiting’s Model
 Key Terms

17. Basic Model
BASIC MODEL
I N PU T
D ECI SI O N
FEED BACK
M AKI N G
O U TPU T

18. Schmidt’s Model
•STIMULUS STIM ULUS
-
this is the input from the ( in p u t )
environment /
surroundings STIM ULUS
ID EN TIFICATIO N
•STIMULUS IDENTIFICA TION
refers to the reception and RESPO N SE REACTIO N
TIM E
interpretation of sensory SELECTIO N
information
•RESPONSE SELECTION RESPO N SE
PRO GRAM M IN G
is responsible for decision
making
M OVEM EN T
•RESPONSE PROGRA MMING (o utpu t)
concerned with the
sending of movement
information via the nerves

19. Welfor d’s Model
DISPLA Y
refers to the range of actions and
things that are happening in the
D ISPLAY
surrounding environment of the
performer
STI M ULI SEN SO RY IN FO RM ATIO N PERCEPTUA L MECHA NISM
the part of the brain which
PER CEPTU AL M ECH AN ISM perceives the surroundings
DECISION MECHA NISM
IN TRIN SIC FEED BACK the part of the brain which makes
D ECISIO N M ECH AN ISM decisions
EFFECTOR MECHA NISM
M USCU LAR SYSTEM EFFECTO R M ECH AN I SM the part of the brain which carries
out the decisions and sends
messages to the limbs and parts
RESPON SE
of the body which act out the
relevant skill
M OVEM EN T INTRINSIC FEEDBA CK
(o u tp u t)
feedback as to what actually
happens to the body via the
proprioceptors which inform the
brain about balance, muscle
tensions, limb positions and
angles
EX TRINSIC FEEDBA CK

20. Whiting’s Model
RECEPTOR SY STEMS
•r efer s to the sense or gans which r eceive
information
PERCEPTUA L MECHA NISM
•the par t of the brain which per ceives the
sur r oundings and gives them meaning
TRA NSLA TORY MECHA NISM
•the par t of the brain which makes decisions
and sorts out and pr ocesses the few r elevant
bits of information
fr om the many inputs fr om the surr oundings
EFFECTOR MECHA NISM
•the par t of the brain which car r ies out the
decisions and sends messages to the limbs and
par ts of the body via the nervous system

21. Key Terms
 Display – The physical environment in which the person is
performing. (eg – display would be team-mates, where are the
opposition, the ball, the pitch etc etc)
 Per ceptual mechanisms – Interpretation of the information
received by the senses.
 Effector Mechanisms – Motor programmes or schemas are
selected and developed. (what and how am I going to do it!)
 Muscular System – Muscles receive relevant motor
programme or plan of action and a movement is initiated.
 Input – information received from the environment via the
sense organs – easier with a stronger stimulus (ie loud, bright,
unusual)
 Visual (see), A uditor y (hear), Pr opr ioception (how our body is
orientated and the extent to which muscles are contracted or
joints extended)
 3 par ts to Pr opr ioception
 Touch (feel – pain, temperature, pressure)
 Equilibrium (sense that tells the brain when your body is
balanced and when it is tipping, turning or inverting)


22. Memory
Shor t Ter m Selective Shor t Ter m Long Ter m
Sensor y A ttention Memor y Memor y
Stor e (STM) (LTM)
Info from STM
is encoded to
LTM
Motor Plan Info from LTM
is retrieved by
recall, imagery
and recognition.

23. Shor t Term Sensor y Store
 Gets all the information from the
display (environment)
 Almost limitless
 Retains information for 0.5-1 second
 Moves onto Selective attention part of
the process.

24. Selective A ttention
 The filtering system of the process.
 Decides on the relevant from the
irrelevant
 Relevant information passes into the
Short Term Memory
 Irrelevant is discarded.
 This prevents the STM from being
overloaded.

25. Shor t Term Memory
 Holds between 7(+-2) pieces of
information
 For 30 seconds
 Motor plan is initiated by one decision
 Capacity is increased by “chunking”
information together

26. Long Term Memor y
 Almost limitless
 Information is encoded from STM
 Information is retrieved from LTM to
STM in order to initiate movement.

27. Retention strategies for LTM
 Practice, Overlearning, Repetition
 Link information to that already stored/relate to
past experiences
 Make information meaningful/relevant
 Experience is enjoyable/novel/interesting
 Use of visual imagery/mental rehearsal
 Reward and reinforce success
 Chunk/group information together
 Intensify the stimulus
 Make information unique/unusual

28. Reaction Time
 Reaction/Movement/Response Time
 Hicks Law
 Factors affecting RT
 PRP
 Anticipation

29. Definitions
 Reaction Time
 Simple (one stimulus/one response)
 Choice (one or more stimulus/more responses)
 Movement Time (time from start of movement to its
completion)
 Response Time = Reaction Time + Movement Time
RUN!!!
Reaction Time : Movement Time………………….
--------------------------RESPONSE

30. Hicks Law
Choice
Reactio
n Time
A s the number of stimuli incr eases so does RT.

31. Factors affecting RT
 Age
 RT deteriorates with time
 Sex
 males are generally faster than females
 Predictability of stimulus
 Anticipation
 correct anticipation decreases RT and incorrect increases
RT.
 Intensity of stimulus
 Psychological Refractory Period
 presentation of a 2nd stimulus to react to.How can
 Experience coaches
improve
response

32. Improving Response time
 Practice  eg practicing sprint starts
 Mental  Attending to the correct cues
Rehearsal  Similar to practice – awareness of a
 Experience stimulus occurring
 S-R  Normal responses to a stimulus will
compatibility decrease RT
 Warm Up  Preparation of body for activity
 Arousal  Optimum level of arousal
Levels  Focussing on the relevant information
 Selective available
attention  Improving it!
 Fitness  Analysing opponents behaviour and
 Cue detection anticipating future events

33. Psychological Refractory
Period
 Or……………..
 S1 – Ronaldo taking a free kick
 R1 – Petr Cech moving to his left to save it
 S2 – Ball deflects off the wall to the right
 R2 – Cech trying to go right to save it.

34. PRP continued
 Psychological Refractory Period or PRP is the
delay caused because of an increase in
processing time when the first stimulus is
closely followed by a second stimulus e.g. an
attacker pretends to go one way by dropping
their shoulder (first stimulus) then pushes off on
the other leg (second stimulus) and goes in a
different direction.
 This explains why a "dummy" or "fake" is so
successful.
 The time delay this causes is the Psychological
refractory period. The time it takes you to
change your mind.

35. A nticipation
 This is the ability to predict future events from early
signals or past experience.
 It relies on experience to recognise stimuli and cues
that allow the performer to process information
before an event occurs e.g. an experienced
batsman would watch the bowlers hand and arm
action to guess the type of delivery. A novice would
watch the ball bounce before deciding which shot to
play.
 Benefits of anticipation - reduces your reaction time,
leaving you in greater control.
 Costs of anticipation - if you are wrong in your
anticipation, you have to cancel the first response
and reprocess. This increases your reach in time.
 How to prevent someone anticipating your action:
 - be unpredictable

36. Feedback
 Intrinsic
 Extrinsic
 Functions

37. Intrinsic
 Comes from within.
 The “feel” of the movement
 Eg balancing during a headstand
 Via proprioceptors and Kinaesthesis
 Mainly used in Autonomous phase of
learning
 Difficult for Cognitive stage of learning
people – novices.

38. Extrinsic
 From external sources –
coaches/teachers etc
 Very important for beginners as they
have not got the experiences to use
intrinsic feedback

39. Functions
 To ....................... reinforce correct
actions
 To ....................... correct faults
 To ....................... strengthen S-R
bond
 To ....................... prevent bad habits
 To ....................... increase confidence

40. Motor Programmes/Schema
 Motor Programmes
 Schema Theory

41. Motor Programmes
 Are a set of movements that are stored
in long term memory.
 They contain subroutines
 The plan is updated after the skill is
performed
 Practical example of a tennis serve

42. Motor Programme example
Tennis
Ser ve
Ball Follow
Gr ip Stance Swing Contact
Toss thr ough

43. Schema Theory
 Used to explain how we can “pick up”
new skills that have never been
attempted before.
 A general schema is developed and
modifies for different scenarios.
 Eg – A schema for throwing. Allows for
javelin throwing, darts, bowling,
throwing etc.

44. Schema cntd
 4 Par ameter s to the schema theor y (explained using a football
pass)
 Initial Conditions – What are the conditions I am in?
 What is the weather conditions like?
 Where are the opposition? Recal
 Where are my team-mates?
 l
Response Specifications – What am I going to have to do?
Which direction am I going to pass the ball?
Sche

 How hard am I going to pass?
 What height is the ball going to go? ma
 Sensor y Consequences – What did it feel like?
 How did the pass “feel” (Kinaesthesis)
Recognit
 Was it off the “sweet spot” of the foot? ion
 Was it not connected with properly?
 Movement Outcomes – Was it successful? Schema
 Did the pass reach my team-mate?
 Was it intercepted?
 Did the pass allow us to attack?

45. Loop Control
 Open Loop
 Closed Loop

46. Open Loop Control
 Performer receives feedback but it
does not affect the skill until after the
movement has finished
 This is because the skill is too
fast/ballistic
 Eg – a golf swing.
 More likely with closed skills
 Level 1 control

47. Closed Loop Control
 This is where feedback can be used to alter
the skill dur ing the performance
 Eg balancing on a beam – information is being
received and the body can adapt based on that
information.
 Changes that happen are from the
effector mechanism
 Comparison between current performance
and memory trace
 Level 2 control - subconscious


48. Motivation/A rousal
 Intrinsic  Drive Theory
 Extrinsic  Inverted U Theory
 Drive Reduction Theory

49. Intrinsic
 Intrinsic motivation comes from within
 Performing for its own sake
 The enjoyment and self achievement
of an activity
 Intangible rewards

50. Extrinsic
 This type of motivation comes from an
outside source
 Eg trophies, money, awards
 Extremely useful for those in the
cognitive stage of learning.
 Needs to be kept in check so it does
not undermine intrinsic motivation

51. Drive Theor y
 As arousal increases so does
performance. Novice –
performance will
suffer because
dominant habit is
incorrect
Skilled –
performance will
be enhanced
because dominant
habit is correct

52. Inver ted U Theory
 As arousal increases so does performance.
 up to an optimum point (zone of optimum
arousal)
 Before that performance decreases due to
under arosual

53. Drive Reduction Theory
 Shows how new tasks or goals are
used to re-motivate the performer
 Firstly there must be a dr ive to lear n
 Then the skill is pr acticed
 Dr ive is r educed when skill is learnt
 Too much pr actice leads to bor edom
 A new task/goal must be introduced to
recreate a…

54. Learning Theor ies
 S-R bonds  Cognitive theories
 Thorndike's Laws  Social Learning
 Operant Conditioning

55. S-R Bonds
 S-R bonds.
 S = stimulus
 R = response
 A S-R bond is the link between a
stimulus and a response.
 Example
 S = A starters gun in athletics
 R = GO!!!!

56. Thorndike's Laws
 Law of exercise
 PRA CTICE.
 The more a skill is practiced the stronger the S-R
bond.
 A performer practices the tennis serve.
 Law of Effect
 SA TISFIER/INHIBITOR
 If the performance receives a satisfier (praise for
example) it strengthens the S-R bond. (a rugby player
sees the kick going over)
 If the performance receives an inhibitor (criticism for
example) it weakens the S-R bond. (a golfer misses
the green)
 Law if Readiness
 PHYSICA LLY/MENTA LLY CA PA BLE
 Performer needs to be physically able to lift weights!
 Performer must be mentally capable to process the

57. Operant conditioning
 The process of shaping behaviour
 Done by performer using trial and error
 Done by the coach manipulating the
environment
 (eg – you can only hit it to the back of the
court)
 Praise helps learning

58. Cognitive Theories
 Intervening Variables
 Mental processes occurring between receiving
the stimulus and the response
 Insight learning
 Using memory to solve a problem
 Perception
 Interpreting the information on offer
 Past experiences
 Past schema’s or motor programmes can be
used in the situation
 Whole learning
 The skill is best seen as a whole and not in parts

59. Social Learning Theory
 Attention
 Amount of notice given to the demonstration
 The higher the status of the model, the more
notice given
 Retention
 A mental picture of the demo needs to be
created in order for the performer to remember
the skill
 Easier if the demo is novel/relevant/meaningful
 Reproduction
 Learner must be physically capable to perform
the skill following the demo
 Demo’s must link to the competence levels of
the performers

60. Reinforcement
 Positive
 Negative

61. Positive
 Any action or reward to increases the
chance of the behaviour r eoccur r ing.
 Eg
 Giving some extrinsic reward when a long
badminton serve is correct.

62. Negative
 Used to ensure that undesirable
responses are not repeated
 Not to be done with beginners, will de
motivate.
 Performers in the autonomous stage of
learning would be more suited to
accept criticism

63. Phases of lear ning
 Cognitive
 Associative
 Autonomous

64. Cognitive
 First stage of learning where many mistakes
occur
 Trial and error
 Movement pattern maybe very jerky and
lacking fluency
 The performer has to think about the skill
 Beginners need accurate demo’s
 Mental Rehearsal occurs from the demo
 Performers needs extrinsic feedback as they
do not know the skill.
 Performer requires positive feedback

65. A ssociative
 Practicing is important at this stage
 Smoother actions, less mistakes than
Cognitive stage
 Kinaesthetic feedback can be used,
but extrinsic feedback is still important
 The performer has to think less about
the action and motor programmes
formed

66. A utonomous
 Movement is fluent/efficient - can be
performed automatically
 Performer can now focus on
tactics/strategies
 Performer can refer back to previous
stage if needed
 Expert can use intrinsic feedback and
knowledge of performance

67. Practice
 Massed  Whole
 Distributed  Whole/Part/Whole
 Varied  Progressive Part

68. Massed
 Practice sessions with no breaks
 Repeated attempts at a skill, grooving
of a skill
 More physical work is possible in one
session
 Good for developing Kinaesthesis
 Allows the learner to experience the
flow of the skill

69. Distributed
 Practice sessions with breaks involved
 Good for beginners or less
experienced performers. Or if the task
is dangerous/complex/physically
demanding
 Mental rehearsal can take place in the
breaks
 Allows sessions to be increasingly
demanding

70. Varied
 Good to experience a wide range of
experience
 Helps build up schema
 Good for open skills

71. Whole learning
 Teaching a skill as a whole, not in parts
[Cognitive theory of learning]
Benefits of teaching the skill as a whole
 Insight of whole skill gained/overview
 Kinaesthetic feel for skill
 Skill more fluent/can't be broken down
 Takes less time
 Transfer to full/game situation easier

72. Whole/Part/Whole
whole par t whole method
A BCD --> A --> B --> C --> D -->
A BCD
 Skill is tried as a whole, then the bits
are practiced
 Then put together again for the whole
skill

73. Progressive Part
 Teach first subroutine - eg run up in
triple jump [A]
 Teach second – take off [B]
 Third subroutine – landing; and add it
to the first [C]
 Teach final skill as a whole – [A]-[B]-
[AB]-[C]-[ABC]
 Subroutines are chained

74. Guidance
 Visual - demonstration (teacher/pupil/video etc)
 Very important in COGNITIVE STAGE
 demos must be accurate as modelling occurs
 Verbal - often accompanies visual guidance
 used with more component performers
 not too much – overload of information
 Can be used to condition a response
 Manual - Use of physical support
 Useful for giving confidence
 Useful for safety reasons
 eg – supporting a gymnast
 Mechanical - Using a mechanical aid
 Gives confidence and safety
 eg – stabilisers of a bike
 Gives an idea of kinaesthetic sense of movement
 not to be overdone – performer may become reliant

75. Transfer of Learning
 Types 1
 Types 2
 Why negative transfer occurs
 How can positive transfer occur?

76. Learning transfer
The influence of one skill on another .
 Positive
 Where one skill helps the learning of
another skill [over arm throw –
badminton clear]
 Negative
 Where one skill hinders the learning of
another skill [badminton wrist action –
tennis wrist]
 Zero
 Where the two skills have no interrelation

77. Transfer of Learning cntd
 Bilateral
 Transferring from one limb to another
[using weaker foot for
kicking a football from preferred foot]
 Proactive
 The influence of a skill already learnt for
one in the future [tennis forehand – tennis
forehand topspin]
 Retroactive
 The influence of a skill being learnt on
one already done [hockey flick –
to lifting a hockey push pass]

78. Why may negative transfer
occur?
 1) The performer doesn’t understand
the task requirements
 2) First skill isn't learnt very well
 3) Lack of motivation
 4) Familiar stimulus is followed by an
unfamiliar response S-R Bond.
 5) Coach doesn’t draw attention to the
differences!

79. How can a teacher ensure
positive tr ansfer?
 Emphasise the transferable elements
 Environmental conditions need to be similar
 Tactics/Strategies/Information processing
elements need to be similar
 Similar skills
 Previous skills need to be well learned
 The more similar S-R characteristics the
greater chance of transfer
 Positive previous experiences/positive
values assist transfer
 Reinforcement/Positive feedback/praise