Leadership in perspectives

Rijal’s Teaching Notes on Leadership in PerspectivesRijal’s Teaching Notes on Leadership in Perspectives
Developed byDeveloped by
Rijal, C. P., PhD in LeadershipRijal, C. P., PhD in Leadership
Developed forDeveloped for
Graduate Development Program (GDP)Graduate Development Program (GDP)
participants of newly admitted Bachelors in Hospitality andparticipants of newly admitted Bachelors in Hospitality and
Tourism Management (BHTM) aspiring graduatesTourism Management (BHTM) aspiring graduates
ofof
Nepal College of ManagementNepal College of Management
Affiliated toAffiliated to
Kathmandu University, School of ManagementKathmandu University, School of Management
NepalNepal
[Probably the best university of Nepal][Probably the best university of Nepal]
For reference in APA, please write as –For reference in APA, please write as –
Rijal, C. P. (2014). Rijal’s teaching notes on leadership in perspectives. Kathmandu: Author.

Leadership in PerspectiveLeadership in Perspective
1. Introducing Leadership1. Introducing Leadership
a. Meaning
b. Scope
c. Functions
2. Selected Perspectives of Leadership2. Selected Perspectives of Leadership
a. Structural functionalist perspective
b. Political-conflict perspective
c. Constructivist perspective
d. Critical humanist perspective
3. Issues Governing Leadership3. Issues Governing Leadership
© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 2

Are leaders born?
Can leadership be learnt?
What are the determinants of effective leaders and
leadership in education?
Are educational leaders different from educational
managers?
What is the role of leadership in transformation of
schools?
Leadership: Learning AgendaLeadership: Learning Agenda

Your mission…is to win our wars…you are
the ones who are trained to fight. Yours is the
profession of arms, the will to win, the sure
knowledge that in war there is no substitute
for victory; That if you lose, the nation will be
destroyed.…
General of the US Army
Douglas Macarthur

The most precious commodity with
which the army deals is the individual
soldier who is the heart and soul of our
combat forces.
General J. Lawton Collins,
VII Corps Commander, World War II

The act of leading.
One of the key management process functions.
Process of influencing people to do something that
they might otherwise not do.
Refers to ‘Getting It Done’.
An art which defies precise definitions.
The action through which one or more persons are
influenced or guided to behave the way they are
expected to.
Cannot occur without the consent of followers.
Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership

Leadership ranges from the smallest decision, such
as where to eat lunch, to the decisions that affect the
directions of nations.
Attainment of agreement upon goals or purposes is
important, but the group or organization is an
important part of the leadership process.
Once individuals turn as successful leaders, they are
more likely to accept or seek more challenging
opportunities.
Introducing LeadershipIntroducing Leadership

Leadership
Influencing people by providing the purpose,
direction, and motivation while operating to
accomplish the mission and improving the
organization.

Influencing
Getting people to do what you want them to
do.
The example you set is just as important as
the words you speak.
Through your words and example, you must
communicate purpose, direction, and
motivation.

Persuades people with a reason to something.
You must earn their trust: they must know
from experience that you care about them and
would not ask them to do something
particularly dangerous or affective unless
there is a good reason, and unless the task is
essential to mission accomplishment.
Purpose

Communicate the way you want the mission
be accomplished.
Prioritize tasks.
Assign responsibility and communicate;
delegate authority when necessary.
Make sure your people understand the
standard.
Listen, and correct the limitations that oppose
your direction.
Direction

People want direction. They want to be given
challenging tasks, training in how to accomplish
them, and the resources necessary to do them well.
Then they want to be left alone to do the job.

Motivation gives subordinate teacher-staff the will
to do everything they can to accomplish a mission.
To motivate your people, give them goals that
challenge them.
Get to know your people and their capabilities.
Give them as much responsibility as they can.
Motivation

When they succeed, praise them.
When they fall short, give them credit for what they
have done and coach or counsel how to do better
next time.
Make sure that the example you set is as important
as what you say and how well you manage the
work.
Motivation

Actions taken to influence others serve to
accomplish operating actions.
Take those actions that help accomplish the stated
goals of your teacher-staff and children.
The educational leaders execute operating actions,
which become more complex as they assume
positions of increasing responsibility.
Operating

Educational leaders should strive for improving
everything that is entrusted to them, their people,
facilities, equipment, training, and all resources.
Improving

Means Ends
School Efficiency School Effectiveness
Goals
Low High
wastage attainment
Leadership Vs. Efficiency and Effectiveness

1. Planning
1. Define goals
2. Establish strategy
3. Develop tactics/subplans
3. Leading
1. Direct the people
2. Motivate the people
3. Resolve the conflicts
2. Organizing
Determine:
1. What to be done
2. How to be done
3. Who is to do
4. Controlling
Motivate activities
to ensure that they
are accomplished
as planned.
Achieving the
school’s
stated purpose
Leadership as One of the Management Functions

Manager Characteristics
Administers
A copy
Maintains
Focuses on systems and structures
Relies on controls
Short-range view
Asks how and when
Eye on the bottom line
Imitates
Accepts the status quo
Classic good soldier
Does things right
Manager Vs. LeaderManager Vs. Leader
Leader Characteristics
Innovates
An original
Develops
Focuses on people
Inspires trust
Long-range perspective
Asks what and why
Eye on the horizon
Originates
Challenges the status quo
Own person
Does the right things
Warren G. Bennis, Managing the dream: leadership in 21st century, journal of
Organizational Change Management, vol. 2, No. 1, 1989, p. 7

Personal
Goal Setting
Elements of Self-Leadership
Constructive
Thought Patterns
Designing
Natural Rewards
Self-Monitoring
Self-Reinforcement

Weber has defined THREE types of leadership
legitimacies:
• Traditional Legitimacy,
• Charismatic Legitimacy, and
• Bureaucratic Legitimacy
Legitimacy - what makes you a leader!

Legitimacy to control is handed down from the past
Based on most traditional forms of customs
Obedience based on loyalty to traditions
Leadership decisions can be arbitrary
Leadership authority is limited by the displeasure of
the subjects, and failure to follow traditions
Examples: Kingdoms of China, Egypt, family schools
Pros: Leadership is clearly defined
Cons: Possible irrationalism, easily corrupted
Traditional Legitimacy

Based on Inspiration: Vision and projection
Legitimacy occurs after leader proves him/herself
Examples: Jesus Christ, Hitler, Ghandi
Pros: The leader is not restricted by tradition and
technical knowledge
Cons: Power can be abused, and people can be
mislead into following
Charismatic Legitimacy

Power is given based on skills, knowledge, and
experience.
Obedience is based on rank which is completed for
and earned.
Structured hierarchy prevails.
Examples: Headteacher, Army General, Catholic
Church
Pros: Rational, technically efficient, and favours
levelling of social classes
Cons: Breeds impersonality and contempt, and stunts
enthusiasm.
Bureaucratic Legitimacy

Accountability and responsiveness to be the
central aspects.
External environmental forces likely to create
unexpected pressure on institutional leadership.
Management rigidity to be the strongest enemy
of leadership in organizations.
Nations are more likely to go for globalization in
every sector.
Future of LeadershipFuture of Leadership

1. Set standards and accountabilities for operational outcomes
expected.
2. Measure the outcomes to confirm that they have positive
relationship with the improvements made.
3. Initiate changes for systems improvement to facilitate long
term system’s transformation. Serve as a change agent.
Leverage institutional innovation.
4. Communicate the problems, prospects, and necessary
changes with the external forces, and seek their continued
support.
5. Enhance overall team effectiveness in organizations
operational as well as strategic policy centers.
6. Create and sustain international partnerships.
Roles of Institutional LeadershipRoles of Institutional Leadership
27
© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014)

Systems thinking
Organizational designing
Stewardship: shared vision
and purpose
Creating creative tensions
Teaching for development
Other Important Roles of LeadersOther Important Roles of Leaders

1. Do all people want to lead?
2. Is it the part of universality of leadership to pay
high for the managers from the developed
countries?
3. Is leadership not dominated by situation?
4. Does legacy of leadership have its final definition?
A Few Big Questions on Leadership DilemmaA Few Big Questions on Leadership Dilemma

1. The change or legacy of a good leader will last
longer after the leader has left the role.
2. Role model unconsciously important role in writing
leadership schools.
3. An institution, once it is created, provides a
platform to play for all and forever.
4. Once a person turns into a leader, his/her negative
aspects are dominated by positive aspects and thus
they are likely to be ignored.
Leadership EffectsLeadership Effects

2. Leadership in Perspectives2. Leadership in Perspectives
Slater (1995) has defined leadership from four major
perspectives:
1.1. Structural-Functionalist PerspectiveStructural-Functionalist Perspective
2.2. Political-Conflict PerspectivePolitical-Conflict Perspective
3.3. Constructivist PerspectiveConstructivist Perspective
4.4. Critical Humanist PerspectiveCritical Humanist Perspective

1. Structural Functionalist Perspective1. Structural Functionalist Perspective
 This is a dominant perspective.This is a dominant perspective.
 It sees leadership as a set of measurable behaviorIt sees leadership as a set of measurable behavior
or skills.or skills.
 Includes all functional activities coveringIncludes all functional activities covering
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling ofplanning, organizing, leading, and controlling of
the resources for their best utilization to makethe resources for their best utilization to make
the institutional operations more cost-effective,the institutional operations more cost-effective,
always.always.

2. Political-Conflict Perspective2. Political-Conflict Perspective
This perspective contrasts with the structural-
functionalist perspective because it does not see
leadership as a set of behavior and skills, rather it
sees it as power relationship with the subordinates.
'Structure of domination' is the essence of this
perspective.
In organizations, this perspective can be seen as the
relationship between the top management and rest
of people or agencies.

3. Constructivist Perspective3. Constructivist Perspective
This perspective also tends to see leadership as the
leader behaviors and skills.
It emphasizes that the majority of the behavior and
skills become dominated by one or two major
behaviors that lead the functioning of other
behaviors and skills.
As its symbolic aspect, this perspective tends to
convey the meaning that the underlying dynamic
social laws construct the structure of the society.

3. Constructivist Perspective…3. Constructivist Perspective…
This perspective disagrees that the social structure
or the social science, and organizational
administration are value free.
Creating and imparting values for life is the essence
of this perspective of leadership.
Since the institutions are for providing service for
life, this perspective is instrumental in better
understanding the institutional philosophy and
essence of leadership therein.

 This perspective deals with the human relations at
the workplace.
 Creating motivating jobs, providing guidance, love
and care, and offering a vision for the team, one
may be able to establish personally as a leader.
 Quite often, the success indicators of the humanist
perspective of leadership may be taken as the
personality traits, and leader member relations.
4. Critical Humanist Perspective4. Critical Humanist Perspective

Summary of Perspectives of LeadershipSummary of Perspectives of Leadership
To summarize from the various leadership
perspectives, it may be concluded that the leader
behavior has to be measured in terms of -
1. leader's relationship of power positionpower position,
2. leader’s behavior and skillsbehavior and skills to add values
to the society, and
3. leader’s personality traitspersonality traits to figurehead
the work teams.

Universal Issues Governing LeadershipUniversal Issues Governing Leadership
1.1. Political-legal issuesPolitical-legal issues
2.2. Economic issuesEconomic issues
3.3. Socio-cultural issuesSocio-cultural issues
4.4. Behavioral issuesBehavioral issues
5.5. Technological issuesTechnological issues
6.6. International issuesInternational issues

Selected Leadership TheoriesSelected Leadership Theories
1.1. Traits TheoriesTraits Theories
2.2. Behavioral ApproachesBehavioral Approaches
3.3. Contingency ApproachesContingency Approaches
4.4. Neo-charismatic Approaches inNeo-charismatic Approaches in
LeadershipLeadership

1. Traits Theory1. Traits Theory
 The theories that sought personality, social,The theories that sought personality, social,
physical, or intellectual traits that differentiatedphysical, or intellectual traits that differentiated
leaders from non-leaders.leaders from non-leaders.
 The traits are the inherent attributes of theThe traits are the inherent attributes of the
leaders to keep them distinct from others.leaders to keep them distinct from others.
 For example, Margaret Thatcher, as the PrimeFor example, Margaret Thatcher, as the Prime
Minister of UK, was recognized for herMinister of UK, was recognized for her
leadership in terms of her confidence, iron-leadership in terms of her confidence, iron-
willed, determined, and decisive.willed, determined, and decisive.

 A research study was conducted in the 1930s toA research study was conducted in the 1930s to
study the attributes that differentiate the leadersstudy the attributes that differentiate the leaders
from non-leaders.from non-leaders.
 A review of 20 different studies identified nearlyA review of 20 different studies identified nearly
80 leadership traits, though the study was not80 leadership traits, though the study was not
aimed to identify the leadership traits.aimed to identify the leadership traits.
 Among the identified traits, only FOUR of themAmong the identified traits, only FOUR of them
were common to all cases -- personality, social,were common to all cases -- personality, social,
physical, and intellectual traits.physical, and intellectual traits.
 In fact, there are only THREE of them exist inIn fact, there are only THREE of them exist in
the real world of leadership.the real world of leadership.
Traits Theory…Traits Theory…
41

Earliest approach to study leadership
Used to identify great persons from masses
Based on the assumption of -
certain traits = success/effectiveness
The logic of leadership traits is as basic as
height, as complex as intelligence
Traits Theory…Traits Theory…

How do the Leaders Differ from Non-leaders?How do the Leaders Differ from Non-leaders?
Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) have identified that
the leaders can be distinguished from non-leaders
on the bases of SIX attributes or traits they exhibit:
1. Drive
2. Desire to lead
3. Honesty and integrity
4. Self-confidence
5. Intelligence
6. Job-relevant knowledge

Important Traits of Effective LeadersImportant Traits of Effective Leaders
Personality
Persuasive
Persistence
Patience
Probity
Praise giving
Positive orientation
 People BasedPeople Based
 PossiblePossible
 PracticalPractical
 ProgressiveProgressive
 PreparedPrepared
 Power-buildingPower-building
13 Ps

Personality Factors for Effective LeadershipPersonality Factors for Effective Leadership
Capacity Achievement Responsibility Participation Status
Intelligence Scholarship Honesty Activity Socioeconomic
position
Alertness Knowledge Dependability Sociability Popularity
Verbal facility Athletic
accomplishment
Initiative Cooperation
Originality Personality
adjustment
Persistence Adaptability
Judgment Aggressiveness Humor
Self-confidence
Desire to excel

Criticisms on Trait Theories of LeadershipCriticisms on Trait Theories of Leadership
The belief that personality traits determine the rate of
success of a leader could easily be challenged because
practically it is very hard to distinguish leaders from
non-leaders based on personality traits
There exists a very thin relationship between traits and
leader’s success
Some traits are achieved by birth
Personality traits without motivation are worthless for
success
The entire proposition does not look like a theory
“Traits Plus Motivation May Equal to Leadership”

2. Behavioral Approaches to Leadership2. Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
Advocacy is on pattern of actions used by different
individuals as the determinants of success of the
leadership.
Examples
1.1. Iowa StudiesIowa Studies: Autocratic, democratic and
laissez-faire.
2.2. Michigan StudiesMichigan Studies: Employee centered versus
task centered.
3.3. Ohio StudiesOhio Studies: Initiating structure versus
consideration.

Three Approaches to Behavioral StudiesThree Approaches to Behavioral Studies
1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid

1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles1. Studies Based on Leadership Styles
 Lewin, Lippitt, and White are probably the earliest
contributors of leadership study in a scientific
manner.
 The authors specialized in leadership styles while
conducting a series of research studies in the 1930s
at the University of Iowa.
 The suggested leadership styles include:
1. Autocratic
2. Democratic
3. Laissez-Faire

When Quantity of work is important:
When Quality of work is important:
When Satisfaction with work is important:
Which is the Best Style?Which is the Best Style?
Autocratic Democratic Laissez Faire
Most Least
Democratic Autocratic Laissez Faire
Best Worst
Democratic Laissez Faire Autocratic
Most Least

Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Continuum ofTannenbaum and Schmidt’s Continuum of
Leadership BehaviorLeadership Behavior
Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire
Use of Authority by the Manager
Area of Freedom for Subordinates
Boss- Centered
Leadership
Subordinate- Centered
Leadership© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 51

Optimal Leadership Style Depends Upon:
1.Forces in the LeaderLeader
2.Forces in the Subordinate GroupSubordinate Group
3.Forces in the SituationSituation
Tannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership ContinuumTannenbaum/Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum

2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions2. Studies Based on Leadership Dimensions
Key Contributions
a. Ohio State University Studies
b. Michigan State University Studies

Ohio State University Studies
Two Dimensions
Initiating structureInitiating structure: The extent to which a
leader is likely to define and structure his/her
role and roles of subordinates in the search for
goal attainment.
ConsiderationConsideration: The extent to which a leader
is likely to have job relationships characterized
by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’
ideas, and regard of their feelings.

Initiating Structure
Is task oriented
Directs subordinate work activities toward goal
attainment
Typically gives instructions, spends time
planning, and emphasize deadlines
Provides explicit schedules of work activities
Consideration
Is mindful of focus on building relationship with
the subordinates
Establishes mutual trust
Provides with open communication
Develops and promotes teamworks© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 55

Two Dimensions
Employee OrientedEmployee Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes interpersonal relations;
relationship-oriented.
Production OrientedProduction Oriented: The leadership dimension in
which the leader emphasizes on technical or task
aspect of the job; results-oriented.
Michigan State University Studies
Similar to Ohio StudiesSimilar to Ohio Studies

3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid3. Studies Based on Leadership Grid
Blake and Mouton (1964) represented with theBlake and Mouton (1964) represented with the
graphical portrayal of the two dimensional viewgraphical portrayal of the two dimensional view
of leadership.of leadership.
The authors proposed a managerial grid showingThe authors proposed a managerial grid showing
the key managerial styles of ‘concern for people’the key managerial styles of ‘concern for people’
and ‘concern for production’.and ‘concern for production’.
The grid has been developed in a nine-by-nineThe grid has been developed in a nine-by-nine
matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles.matrix outlining 81 different leadership styles.

The Managerial Grid
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for Task
ConcernforPeople
(1,9)(1,9)
(9,1)(9,1)
(9,9)(9,9)
(5,5)(5,5)
(1,1)(1,1)

The Managerial Grid
High
High
Low
Low
Concern for Task
ConcernforPeople
1,9
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to the needs of people
for satisfying relationships leads to a com-
fortable, friendly organization atmosphere
and work tempo.
1,1 Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required
work done is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
9,9
Team Management
Work accomplishment is from
committed people;
interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect.
5,5
Middle-of-the-Road Management
Adequate organization performance is possible
through balancing the necessity to get out work
with maintaining morale of people at a
satisfactory level.
Authority-Compliance 9, 1
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such a
way that human elements interfere to a
minimum degree. 59

Leadership Styles
Likert’s System Four Approach to LeadershipLikert’s System Four Approach to Leadership
System I:System I: Exploitive AutocraticExploitive Autocratic
System II:System II: Benevolent AutocraticBenevolent Autocratic
System III:System III: ConsultativeConsultative
System IV:System IV: Participative GroupParticipative Group

3. Contingency Theories of Leadership3. Contingency Theories of Leadership
Leader traits and/or leader behavior are
important aspects but must be taken in
consideration the context -- that is, situationsituation
mattersmatters.

Selected Studies in Contingency ApproachesSelected Studies in Contingency Approaches
Among many theories advocating on ‘contingency’
factor, the following three are the most influential
ones:
1.1.Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory
2.2.Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life Cycle)Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational (Life Cycle)
TheoryTheory
3.3.House’s Path-Goal TheoryHouse’s Path-Goal Theory

Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory
LPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKERLPC: LEAST PREFERRED COWORKER
Low LPC ScoreLow LPC Score: task-oriented leader
High LPC ScoreHigh LPC Score: relationship-oriented leader
According to Fiedler, a person is one or the other -
it is a fixed personality trait.

FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OFFIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OF
LEADERSHIPLEADERSHIP
A person’s LPC score correlates with at least threee
things --
1.1.TaskTask StructureStructure,,
2.2.Leader/MemberLeader/Member RelationsRelations, and, and
3.3.Leader’sLeader’s Power and PositionPower and Position in organizationin organization

Three Elements of Leadership SituationsThree Elements of Leadership Situations
Task structureTask structure refers to the extent to which tasks
performed by the group are defined, involve specific
procedures, and have clear, explicit goals.
Leader-member relationsLeader-member relations refers to group
atmosphere and members’ attitude toward and
acceptance of the leader.
 Leader’sLeader’s Power and PositionPower and Position is the extent to
which the leader has formal authority over
subordinates.

Task-Oriented Leader (Low LPC)
Leader is best when situation either favorable or
unfavorable.
Employee-Oriented Leader (High LPC)
Leader is best when situation is moderately favorable.

POSSIBLE USES OF FIEDLER’S THEORY
1.Train leaders in needed styleTrain leaders in needed style
Fiedler says ‘no’Fiedler says ‘no’
2.Match the leader with the jobMatch the leader with the job
Fiedler says this is a ‘good start’Fiedler says this is a ‘good start’
3.Engineer the job to fit the mangerEngineer the job to fit the manger
Fiedler says this is the ‘best approach’Fiedler says this is the ‘best approach’

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational TheoryHersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
A contingency approach to leadership that links the
leader’s behavioral style with the task readiness
(maturity) of subordinates.
Also known as ‘life cycle’ theory.

Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership
No single best way to lead.
Focus on maturity or readiness of followers
Ability and willingness.
Adjust emphasis on task and relationship
behaviors according to the readiness of followers
to perform their tasks.

Hersey’s Situational Leadership ModelHersey’s Situational Leadership Model
Based on
Style of leadership
• Giving direction (task behaviour)
• Giving motivational support (relationship behaviour)
“Readiness” of followers to perform a task
• Ability
• Willingness

Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership
Telling: low readiness, untrained and
inexperienced employees
Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but
inexperienced employees
Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but
unwilling, employees skeptical
Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and
willing to take responsibility

Hersey and
Blanchard’s
Situational
Leadership
Model Defines
Relationship
Between
Maturity and
Four
Leadership
Styles
HighHigh
relationshiprelationship
Low taskLow task
High taskHigh task
HighHigh
LowLow
Low taskLow task
High taskHigh task
LowLow
M1M1
M2M2M3M3
M4M4
Participating
Delegating
Telling
Selling
HighHigh
LowLow HighHigh
Task BehaviorTask Behavior
RelationshipBehaviorRelationshipBehavior
Style ofStyle of
LeaderLeader
ImmatureImmatureMaturityMaturity
AbilityAbility
WillingnessWillingness
M1M1M2M2M3M3M4M4
HighHigh ModerateModerate LowLow
This person is able
(has the necessary
knowledge and skill)
This person is willing
(has the necessary
confidence and
commitment)
Maturity of Followers
Psychological maturity
Job maturity
A great dealA great deal
44
Quite a bitQuite a bit
33
SomeSome
22
LittleLittle
11
UsuallyUsually
44
OftenOften
33
On occasionOn occasion
22
SeldomSeldom
11
72© Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014)

HOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORYHOUSE’S PATH-GOAL THEORY
 Based on Expectancy Theory of Motivation
 A leader should emphasize either path clarification
or adjust rewards depending on the factors affecting
a person’s motivation
 Theory assumes people can change their leadership
styles to fit the situation

Situational ContingenciesSituational Contingencies
Three Important Situational Contingencies
in Path-Goal Theory
1. Personal characteristics of the group members
2. Work environment
3. The situation

Path-goal TheoryPath-goal Theory
Deeply rooted with Expectancy Theory
Leader behaviors involved --
Directive
Supportive
Achievement-oriented
Participative

Path-Goal Model of LeadershipPath-Goal Model of Leadership
Follower CharacteristicsFollower Characteristics
1.1. Locus of controlLocus of control
2.2. AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism
3.3. AbilityAbility
OutcomesOutcomes
1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction
2.2. PerformancePerformance
3.3. Acceptance of the leaderAcceptance of the leader
FollowersFollowers
1.1. PerceptionsPerceptions
2.2. MotivationMotivation
Environmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors
1.1. TasksTasks
2.2. Formal authority systemFormal authority system
3.3. Work groupWork group
Leader Behavior StylesLeader Behavior Styles
1.. DirectiveDirective
2.. SupportiveSupportive
3.. ParticipativeParticipative
4.. Achievement-orientedAchievement-oriented

4. Neo-charismatic Approaches in Leadership4. Neo-charismatic Approaches in Leadership

1. Change Leadership
Transactional Leader: Provides direction for
subordinates to achieve stated objectives through
performance. Typical “good manager” using position
power and some personal power.
Transformational Leader: Special ability to create
institutional innovation and change. Charismatic
leader within an organization; high on position and
personal power.

Effects of Change LeadershipEffects of Change Leadership
Transactional
Leadership
Current
state of
expected
subordinate
effort
Normal
expected
subordinate
performance
Transformational
Leadership
Heightened
motivation
to attain
designed
outcome
(extra effort)
Subordinates
perform
beyond
normal
expectations

Transformational LeadershipTransformational Leadership
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transformational
Leadership
• Idealized Influence
• Inspiration
• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized
consideration
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Transactional
Leadership
• Contingent reward
• Management by
exception (active or
passive)
• Laissez faire
Performance
beyond
expectation
Performance
beyond
expectation
Agreed upon
performance
Agreed upon
performance
Broadening and
elevating
follower
goals
Leader/follower
exchange

Characteristics of Transactional LeadershipCharacteristics of Transactional Leadership
1. Establishes goals and objectives.
2. Designs work flow and delegates task
assignments.
3. Negotiates exchange of rewards for effort.
4. Rewards performance and recognizes
accomplishments.
5. Searches for deviations from standards and takes
corrective actions.

Characteristics of Transformational LeadershipCharacteristics of Transformational Leadership
1.1. Charismatic:Charismatic: Provides vision and a sense of
mission, gains respect and trust, instills pride.
2.2. Individualized consideration:Individualized consideration: Gives personal
attention, and treats each person individually,
coaches.
3.3. Intellectually stimulating:Intellectually stimulating: Promotes learning,
encourages rationality, uses careful problem
solving.
4.4. Inspirational:Inspirational: Communicates high performance
expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, distills
essential purposes.

2. Participative Management2. Participative Management
 Democratic approach of management.
 Employees have autonomy in making and
implementing decisions.
 Leader invites wider participation of the
subordinates in making and selling decisions.
 Exists high degree of delegation of authority.
 Managers listen and value the subordinate
suggestions.
 High degree of customer focus exists.
 A move into TQM process climate.

3. Management by Objectives (MBO)3. Management by Objectives (MBO)
 A management system in which specific
performance goals are jointly determined by
employees and their managers, progress toward
accomplishing those goals is periodically reviewed,
rewards are allocated on the basis of the progress in
accomplishing the goals.
 Goal achievement is the key of MBO.
 Management approach is driven by the nature of
performance objectives and goals.
 MBO consists of four elements; goal specificity,
participative. © Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 84

Management by Objectives (MBO)…Management by Objectives (MBO)…
FOUR Characteristics of MBO
1. Goal specificity,
2. Participative decision making,
3. An explicit time period, and
4. Performance feedback.
MBO increases organizationalMBO increases organizational
performance and productivityperformance and productivity

4. Management by Walking Around (MBWA)4. Management by Walking Around (MBWA)
 A term used to describe when a manager is out in
the work area, interacting directly with employees,
and exchanging information about what’s going on.
 MBWA is a management control process which
follows THREE steps:
Step 1: Measure the actual performance,
Step 2: Compare actual performance with the
standard performance, and
Step 3: Take managerial action for further
improvement.

5. Management by Exception5. Management by Exception
 An alternative approach of management when the
other conventional laws management do not work
 Difficult to distinguish from charismatic,
transformational, and transactional leadership
approaches
 Examples:

Use negative reinforcement if positive reinforcement
does not work

Reward for faulty deeds if punishment does not work

Do it yourself to let others know how to follow it

Induce unexpected surprising ways to doing things

6. Creating Learning Organization6. Creating Learning Organization
 An organization with exceptional work culture.
 The most open type of organization.
 An organizational system in which fear of
ignorance and inability is eliminated through
relevant training and development.
 People learn through open interactions.
 Managers value subordinate problems and their
suggestions.
 Creativity creeps eternally in all members.
 A move towards TQM process climate.

CONCLUSIONS FROM LEADERSHIP THEORIESCONCLUSIONS FROM LEADERSHIP THEORIES
1.1. Transformational leaders inspire higherTransformational leaders inspire higher
performance than do transactional leaders.performance than do transactional leaders.
2.2. Effective leaders must be concerned aboutEffective leaders must be concerned about
accomplishing the task and relationships.accomplishing the task and relationships.
3.3. Effective leaders better know when to tell, sell,Effective leaders better know when to tell, sell,
participate, or delegate.participate, or delegate.
4.4. Effective leaders understand mission andEffective leaders understand mission and
strategy, know how to implement change,strategy, know how to implement change,
motivate employees to high performance, andmotivate employees to high performance, and
teach effectively.teach effectively.
5.5. Effective leaders lead by example and they areEffective leaders lead by example and they are
the honest and fair people and they inspirethe honest and fair people and they inspire
confidence.confidence. © Reserved by Dr. Rijal (2014) 89

REFERENCES FOR FURTHER READINGREFERENCES FOR FURTHER READING
Dessler, G. (2009). A framework of human resource management. (4th
ed.). New Delhi:
Pearson Education.
Dessler, G. & Varkkey, B. (2013). Human resource management. (12th
ed.). New
Delhi: Pearson Education.
Luthans, F. (2002). Organizational behavior. (9th
ed.). New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Irwin
Publication.
Rijal, C. P. (2012). Graduate study manual on organizational behavior. Kathmandu:
Nepal Academy of Tourism and Hotel Management [NATHM].
Rijal, C. P. (2014). Rijal on principles of management – a graduate study manual.
Kathmandu: Author.
Robbins, S. P., Coulter, M. (2002). Fundamentals of management. (3rd
ed.). New Delhi:
Pearson Education.
Robbins, S. P., Coulter, M., & Vohra, N. (2010). Management. (10th
ed.). New Delhi:
Pearson Education.
Robbins, S. P., DeCenzo, D. A. (2007). Fundamentals of management – essential
concepts and applications. (5th
ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Sanghi, S. (2010). Essentials of organizational
behavior. (10th
Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A., & Vohra, N. (2013). Essentials of organizational
behavior. (14th
Snell, S., & Bohlander, G. (2007). Human resource management. (Indian Ed.). New
90

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