The document provides information on membrane filtration and SODIS (solar water disinfection) methods for water treatment. It describes the processes of reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and microfiltration used in membrane filtration. It then explains the three primary types of solar water disinfection: using electricity from solar panels, using heat from sunlight, and using UV radiation from sunlight. It provides details on the SODIS method, which uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature from sunlight and plastic bottles to disinfect water.

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1
Distribution
System
Manesh P. Malla
Asst. Prof.
Civil Engineering
Department
Nepal Engineering College
Course Content
Layout Of Distribution Networks,
Systems Of Supply,
Methods Of Water Distribution,
ESR,
Underground Service Reservoir,
And Storage capacity of balancing
reservoir
Introduction…
The purpose of distribution system is to deliver water to
consumer with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure.
Distribution system is used to describe collectively the
facilities used to supply water from its source to the point of
usage.
Requirements of Good Distribution
System...
Water quality should not get deteriorated in the
distribution pipes.
It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended
places with sufficient pressure head.
It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of
water during fire fighting.
The layout should be such that no consumer would be
without water supply, during the repair of any section of the
system.
All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one
metre away or above the sewer lines.
It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to
leakage to the minimum.
Layouts of Distribution Network
The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road
pavements, and as such their layouts generally follow the
layouts of roads.
There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks;
any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be
used for a particular place.

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They are:
Dead End System
Radial System
Grid Iron System
Ring System
Dead End System...
It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite
pattern of roads.
Advantages
 Relatively cheap.
 Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of cut off valves.
Pipe laying simple.
Disadvantages
 Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.
 No water if system fails
 Many scour valves required
 Less maintaining of pressure in the far areas.
 Less water for fire fighting
Radial System...
The area is divided into different zones.
The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in
the middle of each zone.
 The supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the
periphery.
Advantages:
It gives quick service.
Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
Grid Iron System...
It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the
water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.

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Advantages
Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of
dead ends.
In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is
available from some other direction.
Disadvantages
Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to
provision of valves on all branches.
Ring System...
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads
and sub mains branch out from the mains.
 This system also follows the grid iron system with the
flow pattern similar in character to that of dead end
system.
So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.
Advantages
Water can be supplied to any point from at least two
directions.
SYSTEMS OF SUPPLY
(a) Continuous system
Water is supplied to the consumers for all 24 hours of a day
Advantages:
Water every time, No stagnant water, Adequate quantity for
fire fighting, no need of reservoir
Disadvantages:
More wastage, if leakage large amount spilled, supply
interrupted during maintenance
(a) Continuous system
(b) Intermittent system
(b) Intermittent system
Water is supplied to the consumers only during fixed hours
Advantages:
 Useful when pressure or quantity of water is not available
 Water can be supplied by turn.
 Repairing work can be done in non-supply hours.
 Leakage causes less waste
Disadvantages:
Inconvenience, domestic tank needed, no water at fire, loss of
water, greater dia pipe needed, suction effect, more valves
required
Methods of water distribution…
For efficient distribution system adequate water pressure
required at various points.
Depending upon the level of source, topography of the area
and other local conditions the water may be forced into
distribution system by following ways -

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1. Gravity system
2. Pumping system
3. Combined gravity and pumping system
Gravity system…
Suitable when source of supply is at sufficient height.
Most reliable and economical distribution system.
The water head available at the consumer is just minimum
required.
The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and
other losses.
Pumping system…
Treated water is directly pumped in to the distribution main
with out storing.
Also called pumping without storage system.
High lifts pumps are required.
If power supply fails, complete stoppage of water supply.
This method is not generally used.
Combined gravity and pumping system
Most common system.
Treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated
distribution reservoir.
Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity.
The excess water during low demand periods get stored in
reservoir and get supplied during high demand period.
Economical, efficient and reliable system.

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Distribution Reservoirs...
Distribution reservoirs, also called service reservoirs, are
the storage reservoirs, which store the treated water for
supplying water during emergencies (such as during fires,
repairs, etc.) and also to help in absorbing the hourly
fluctuations in the normal water demand.
Functions of Distribution Reservoirs
 to absorb the hourly variations in demand.
 to maintain constant pressure in the distribution
mains.
 water stored can be supplied during emergencies.
Location and Height of Distribution Reservoirs
 should be located as close as possible to the centre
of demand.
 water level in the reservoir must be at a sufficient
elevation to permit gravity flow at an adequate
pressure.
Types of Reservoirs...
Depending upon their elevation w.r.t ground it may be
classified into
1. Surface reservoirs
2. Elevated reservoirs
Surface reservoirs…
These also called ground reservoir.
Mostly circular or rectangular tank.
Under ground reservoirs are preferred especially when the
size is large.
These reservoirs are constructed on high natural grounds
and are usually made of stones, bricks, plain or reinforced
cement concrete.
The side walls are designed to take up the pressure of the
water, when the reservoir is full and the earth pressure
when it is empty.
The position of ground water table is also considered while
designing these reservoirs.
The floors of these reservoirs may constructed with R.C.C
slab or square stone blocks resting on columns.

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To obtain water tightness bitumen compounds are used at
all construction joints.
 At the top of roof about 60cm thick earth layer is
deposited and maintained green lawns to protect the
reservoir from cold and heat.
For aeration of water and inspection, ventilation pipes and
stairs are provided.
Under Ground Reservoir
TYPES OF TANKS
R.C.C TANKS: R.C.C tanks are very popular because
1) They have long life
2) Very little maintenance
3) decent appearance
G.I. TANKS: G.I. tanks are generally in rectangular or
square in shape. Now a days G.I. tanks are not preferring
because
1) Life of the tank is short
2) Corrosion of metal
3) maintenance cost may be more
HDPE TANKS: Now a days HDPE tanks are very popular
for storing less quantity of water and hence useful for
residential purpose. The following are the advantages of
HDPE tanks
1) Handling is easy because of light weight
2) Cheap in cost
3) Maintenance cost is low
4) Cleaning of tanks are easy
ESR...
Elevated Storage Reservoirs (ESRs) also referred to as
Overhead Tanks are required at distribution areas which
are not governed and controlled by the gravity system of
distribution.
These are rectangular, circular or elliptical in shape.
If the topography of the town not suitable for under gravity,
the elevated tank or reservoir are used.

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They are constructed where combine gravity and pumping
system of water distribution is adopted.
These tanks may be steel or RCC.
Now RCC is commonly preferred.
The accessories of ESR are-
Inlet and outlet pipe, overflow pipe discharging into a drain
Float gauge, indicating depth of water.
Automatic device to stop pumping when the tank is full.
A manhole and ladder.
Ventilator for circulation of fresh air.
Storage Capacity of Distribution
Reservoirs...
The total storage capacity of a distribution reservoir is the
summation of:
Balancing Storage: The quantity of water required to be
stored in the reservoir for equalising or balancing
fluctuating demand against constant supply is known as the
balancing storage (or equalising or operating storage).
Breakdown Storage: The breakdown storage or often
called emergency storage is the storage preserved in order
to tide over the emergencies posed by the failure of pumps,
electricity, or any other mechanism driving the pumps.
A value of about 25% of the total storage capacity of
reservoirs, or 1.5 to 2 times of the average hourly supply,
may be considered as enough provision for accounting this
storage.
Fire Storage: The third component of the total reservoir
storage is the fire storage.
This provision takes care of the requirements of water for
extinguishing fires.
A provision of 1 to 4 per person per day is sufficient to
meet the requirement.

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When reserve storage is elevated, amount of fire reserve
may be determined by
R= (F-P) T
R= Reserve storage (liters)
F= Fire demand, liters/min
P= Reserve fire pumping capacity, liters/min
T= Duration of the fire in min
The total reservoir storage can finally be worked out by
adding all the three storages.
Analytical Method
1. Hourly demand ( outflow) and Supply (inflow) for 24 hrs
2. Cumulative inflow and outflow
3. Cumulative surplus and deficit
4.Max of cumulative deficit (MCD), surplus (MCS), total
outflow (TO) and total inflow (TI)
5.Capacity of balancing reservoir (CBR:
i. If TI > TO, CBR = MCS + MCD – TI + TO and
ii. If TI ≤ TO, CBR = MCS + MCD
Example
A village in Mid-western development region of Nepal has a design year
population of 500. Per capita demand recommended for that particular
village is 65 lpcd. The demand is to meet by continuous system of supply
from spring source with safe yield of 0.5 lps. The consumption pattern in %
of a day is as follows. Is balancing reservoir necessary? Calculate its
capacity by analytical if necessary?
 Here,
Maximumofcumulativesurplus(MCS)=10700liters,
Maximumofcumulativedeficit(MCD)=6900liters
Totalsupply(TI)=43200liters,
Totaldemand(TO)=32500liters
 Now,forTI>TO,
Capacityofbalancingreservoir(V)=MCS+MCD-TI+TO
=10700+6900-43200+32500=6900liters

9. Membrane Filtration and SODIS
1
Manesh P. Malla (nec)
Membrane filtration
Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage. For drinking
water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 ᵤ m
including giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an effective form of tertiary
treatment when it is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or
before discharging the water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. They are
widely used in industry, particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). However
no filtration can remove substances that are actually dissolved in the water such
as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.
Processes:
Reverse Osmosis:
Small solute particles to be separated.
Molecular weight < 100
Pore size: 2 – 10 A0
Pressure: > 25 atm.
Permeation is main transport mechanism
Example: Filtration of salt solution
Ultrafiltration:
Molecular weight of particles: 103
- 105
Pore size: 20 – 1000 A0
Pressure: 6 – 8 atm.
Transport Mechanism: Convection (main) +
diffusion
Example: Filtration of protein, Red blood cells,
polymers, etc.
Nanofiltration:
Particles to be separated with Molecular
weight: 200 – 1000
Pore size: 5 – 20 A0
Pressure: 15 – 25 atm.
Particle retention of salts.
Example: Filtration of dyes, small molecular
weight organics, etc.
Microfiltration:
Molecular weight > 1 lakh
Pore size: more than 1000 A0
Pressure: 2 – 4 atm.
Example: Filtration of clay solution, latex,
paint, etc.
Solar water disinfection is a type of portable water purification that uses solar energy to make
biologically-contaminated (e.g. bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms) water safe to drink. Water
contaminated with non-biological agents such as toxic chemicals or heavy metals require
additional steps to make the water safe to drink.
There are three primary subsets of solar water disinfection:
1. Electric. Solar disinfection using the effects of electricity generated
by photovoltaic panels (solar PV).
2. Heat. Solar thermal water disinfection.
3. UV. Solar ultraviolet water disinfection.

10. Membrane Filtration and SODIS
2
Manesh P. Malla (nec)
Solar disinfection using the effects of electricity generated by photovoltaic typically uses an
electrical current to deliver electrolytic processes which disinfect water, for example by
generating oxidative free radicals which kill pathogens by damaging their chemical structure. A
second approach uses stored solar electricity from a battery, and operates at night or at low light
levels to power an ultraviolet lamp to perform secondary solar ultraviolet water disinfection.
Solar thermal water disinfection uses heat from the sun to heat water to 70C-100C for a short
period of time. A number of approaches exist here. Solar heat collectors can have lenses in front
of them, or use reflectors. They may also use varying levels of insulation or glazing. In addition,
some solar thermal water disinfection processes are batch-based, while others (through-flow
solar thermal disinfection) operate almost continuously while the sun shines. Water heated to
temperatures below 100C is generally referred to as Pasteurized water.
High energy ultraviolet radiation from the sun can also be used to kill pathogens in water.
The SODIS method uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature (solar thermal)
for disinfecting water using only sunlight and plastic PET bottles. SODIS is a free and effective
method for decentralized water treatment, usually applied at the household level and is
recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water
treatment and safe storage. SODIS is already applied in numerous developing countries.
Educational pamphlets on the method are available in many languages,[2]
each equivalent to the
English-language version.
Principle of SODIS
Exposure to sunlight has been shown to deactivate diarrhea-causing organisms in
polluted drinking water. Three effects of solar radiation are believed to contribute to the
inactivation of pathogenic organisms:
• UV-A interferes directly with the metabolism and destroys cell structures of bacteria.
• UV-A (wavelength 320–400 nm) reacts with oxygen dissolved in the water and produces
highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) that are
believed to also damage pathogens.
• Cumulative solar energy (including the infrared radiation component) heats the water. If the
water temperatures rises above 50 °C (122 °F), the disinfection process is three times faster.
At a water temperature of about 30 °C (86 °F), a threshold solar irradiance of at least
500 W/m2
(all spectral light) is required for about 5 hours for SODIS to be efficient. This dose
contains energy of 555 Wh/m2
in the range of UV-A and violet light, 350–450 nm,
corresponding to about 6 hours of mid-latitude (European) midday summer sunshine.

11. Membrane Filtration and SODIS
3
Manesh P. Malla (nec)
At water temperatures higher than 45 °C (113 °F), synergistic effects of UV radiation and
temperature further enhance the disinfection efficiency.