This document provides an introduction to knowledge management concepts from a class titled "Concepts and Application of KM". It defines knowledge management and discusses common problems organizations face such as loss of knowledge, inability to acquire information, and outdated information. It then summarizes several real-world examples of how organizations have implemented knowledge management initiatives to address problems, including sharing best practices, identifying expertise, exploiting intellectual property, learning about customers, and disseminating knowledge. The document concludes by discussing challenges of knowledge management, myths about knowledge management, and factors to consider in assessing an organization's readiness for knowledge management.
Managing Tacit And Explicit Knowledge Ratnakarsharmaratnakar_sharma
Knowledge Management is an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, managing and sharing an organization\'s information assets like documents, database, other repositories and employee\'s expertise. It is a conscious strategy of getting the right knowledge to the right people at the right time so they can make the right decisions.
Effective management of knowledge is important because knowledge can create commercial value only when it is put into action. Knowledge is fortunately a process that can be nurtured in organizations.
This presentation explains Tacit and Explicit, the two forms, the knowledge comes from in.
A short history of knowledge management wrapping up with a positioning of Enterprise 2.0 within a knowledge management setting - Originally presented at the Enterprise 2.0 Conference
This is my presentation from the IIM National Conference on 15 August 2007. I'm hoping to cause a little bit of a stir and push a few people out of their comfort zones.
There are three embedded videos that don't work on SlideShare. Use the URLs on the relevant pages to view the videos at YouTube.
There are a lot of slides, but the whole thing runs about 40 minutes in real life.
In spirit of learning, here are slides where John Hovell (BAE) & I (Columbia) compare Knowledge Continuity (embodying knowledge for succession) and Knowledge Jam (codifying knowledge for innovation).
Managing Tacit And Explicit Knowledge Ratnakarsharmaratnakar_sharma
Knowledge Management is an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, managing and sharing an organization\'s information assets like documents, database, other repositories and employee\'s expertise. It is a conscious strategy of getting the right knowledge to the right people at the right time so they can make the right decisions.
Effective management of knowledge is important because knowledge can create commercial value only when it is put into action. Knowledge is fortunately a process that can be nurtured in organizations.
This presentation explains Tacit and Explicit, the two forms, the knowledge comes from in.
A short history of knowledge management wrapping up with a positioning of Enterprise 2.0 within a knowledge management setting - Originally presented at the Enterprise 2.0 Conference
This is my presentation from the IIM National Conference on 15 August 2007. I'm hoping to cause a little bit of a stir and push a few people out of their comfort zones.
There are three embedded videos that don't work on SlideShare. Use the URLs on the relevant pages to view the videos at YouTube.
There are a lot of slides, but the whole thing runs about 40 minutes in real life.
In spirit of learning, here are slides where John Hovell (BAE) & I (Columbia) compare Knowledge Continuity (embodying knowledge for succession) and Knowledge Jam (codifying knowledge for innovation).
Valuing, Cultivating, and Effectively Sharing Tacit Knowledge Human Capital Media
Human capital has been defined as the knowledge, skills, and experience that an employee utilizes in the workplace. One element of human capital is an individual’s tacit knowledge, or know-how, beliefs, experiences and values.
With 77 million baby boomers preparing to retire in the near future, and only 44 million Gen Xers to fill the leadership void, the organizations that effectively and purposefully collect, utilize, and disseminate the individual tacit knowledge of their workers will be more effective at achieving their organizational missions.
This webinar focuses on the value of tacit knowledge and how organizations such as Avantas, Boys Town, Caterpillar, Defense Acquisition University and the Peace Corps are successfully cultivating and sharing this knowledge.
knowledge management detailed document - meaning , types, knowledge management system lifecycle, Nonaka,s model , KM myths, KM cycle, KM Audit, km matrix, km components , Knowledge application system, Knowledge capture system, Knowledge sharing system, Knowledge discovery system, codification, personalization , 5ikm3 maturity model , CMM maturity model,1. Distinguish between brainstorming and consensus decision making
2. Protocol analysis and Delphi method
3. Repertory guard and nominal group
4. Black boarding and electronic brain storming
Global knowledge management_pawlowski_2012Jan Pawlowski
The extensive slideset is used for a 5ECTS course on global knowledge management. It covers theoretical aspects as well as practical issues. It is accompanied by a case study on global knowledge management as a practical application of the theoretical concepts. For further information, please contact me.The slides can be used for non-commercial purposes but please inform me how you used them!
Knowledge management explained by Enamul HaqueEnamul Haque
Knowledge Management, (KM) is a concept and a term that arose approximately two decades ago, roughly in 1990. Quite simply one might say that it means organizing an organization's information and knowledge holistically, but that sounds a bit wooly, and surprisingly enough, even though it sounds overbroad, it is not the whole picture. Very early on in the KM movement, Davenport (1994) offered the still widely quoted definition:
"Knowledge management is the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively using knowledge."
This definition has the virtue of being simple, stark, and to the point. A few years later, the Gartner Group created another second definition of KM, which is perhaps the most frequently cited one (Duhon, 1998):
"Knowledge management is a discipline that promotes an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating, retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise's information assets. These assets may include databases, documents, policies, procedures, and previously un-captured expertise and experience in individual workers."
Law Firm Knowledge Management, An IntroductionConnie Crosby
An introduction to law firm knowledge management by Connie Crosby and Stephanie Barnes, presented at lawTechCamp 2012 in Toronto on May 12, 2012.
Slide 14 (the Knowledge Management Technology graph) is further discussed here: http://www.slaw.ca/2012/06/11/km-101-more-on-technology-complexity/
Presentation on an approach to knowledge management that balances high level vision and practical solutions. The approach is adapted from years of experience in helping knowledge intensive organizations being more effective with information.
Valuing, Cultivating, and Effectively Sharing Tacit Knowledge Human Capital Media
Human capital has been defined as the knowledge, skills, and experience that an employee utilizes in the workplace. One element of human capital is an individual’s tacit knowledge, or know-how, beliefs, experiences and values.
With 77 million baby boomers preparing to retire in the near future, and only 44 million Gen Xers to fill the leadership void, the organizations that effectively and purposefully collect, utilize, and disseminate the individual tacit knowledge of their workers will be more effective at achieving their organizational missions.
This webinar focuses on the value of tacit knowledge and how organizations such as Avantas, Boys Town, Caterpillar, Defense Acquisition University and the Peace Corps are successfully cultivating and sharing this knowledge.
knowledge management detailed document - meaning , types, knowledge management system lifecycle, Nonaka,s model , KM myths, KM cycle, KM Audit, km matrix, km components , Knowledge application system, Knowledge capture system, Knowledge sharing system, Knowledge discovery system, codification, personalization , 5ikm3 maturity model , CMM maturity model,1. Distinguish between brainstorming and consensus decision making
2. Protocol analysis and Delphi method
3. Repertory guard and nominal group
4. Black boarding and electronic brain storming
Global knowledge management_pawlowski_2012Jan Pawlowski
The extensive slideset is used for a 5ECTS course on global knowledge management. It covers theoretical aspects as well as practical issues. It is accompanied by a case study on global knowledge management as a practical application of the theoretical concepts. For further information, please contact me.The slides can be used for non-commercial purposes but please inform me how you used them!
Knowledge management explained by Enamul HaqueEnamul Haque
Knowledge Management, (KM) is a concept and a term that arose approximately two decades ago, roughly in 1990. Quite simply one might say that it means organizing an organization's information and knowledge holistically, but that sounds a bit wooly, and surprisingly enough, even though it sounds overbroad, it is not the whole picture. Very early on in the KM movement, Davenport (1994) offered the still widely quoted definition:
"Knowledge management is the process of capturing, distributing, and effectively using knowledge."
This definition has the virtue of being simple, stark, and to the point. A few years later, the Gartner Group created another second definition of KM, which is perhaps the most frequently cited one (Duhon, 1998):
"Knowledge management is a discipline that promotes an integrated approach to identifying, capturing, evaluating, retrieving, and sharing all of an enterprise's information assets. These assets may include databases, documents, policies, procedures, and previously un-captured expertise and experience in individual workers."
Law Firm Knowledge Management, An IntroductionConnie Crosby
An introduction to law firm knowledge management by Connie Crosby and Stephanie Barnes, presented at lawTechCamp 2012 in Toronto on May 12, 2012.
Slide 14 (the Knowledge Management Technology graph) is further discussed here: http://www.slaw.ca/2012/06/11/km-101-more-on-technology-complexity/
Presentation on an approach to knowledge management that balances high level vision and practical solutions. The approach is adapted from years of experience in helping knowledge intensive organizations being more effective with information.
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4. Definition of Knowledge Management
• No single authoritative definition
• The word emerged in Europe around 1992 to 1994
• KM experts:
5. Problems
• Loss of knowledge
• Unable to acquire information
• A decision making process has
to be postponed
• “Sorry, I’m not sure what projects
my colleagues are involved in
now”
• All documents labelled with
‘Private and Confidential’, and no
one is supposed to open it
6. Problems (cont.)
• Collecting the necessary information - becomes a project
in itself
• No record of the methodology used to solve the problem
• Outdated information
• Best practices are not being captured and shared
9. KM in Action
• Sharing Best Practices
• Sourcing Expertise Efficiently
• Exploitation of Existing Commercial Know-how
• Learning about Customers
• Creating Knowledge from Data
• Dissemination of Right Knowledge, Right Time, Right Place
• Sharing Knowledge for Cooperative Solving
10. Become a best seller cloud system analyst?
ViDeO:
Service cloud demo
11. KM in Action 1
• Sharing Best Practices
Problem
The performance across sales divisions was not comparable
Action
The company analysed and codified the practices of the best-performing
sales divisions and made these available to all divisions
Benefit
Improved performance in those divisions that implemented best
practices.
12. KM in Action 2
• Sourcing Expertise Efficiently
Problem
A commercial bank needed to be able to put together its expertise from around the
world
Action
Developed and published a sophisticated directory identifying experts and their
subjects
Benefit
The directory would contribute more than ten times return on a modest
investment.
13. KM in Action 3
• Exploitation of Existing Commercial Know-how
Problem
A chemical company had thousands of patents
Action
It created a new function tasked with getting more value from these
assets
Benefit
Those patents with commercial potential were licensed, and those
without were discontinued
14. KM in Action 4
• Learning about Customers
Problem
A credit card organisation was unable to identify which customers
represented the most profitable business
Action
Using a data warehouse to identify the unprofitable customers
Benefit
The organisation was able to target its efforts on that part of the
customer
15. KM in Action 5
• Creating Knowledge from Data
Problem
A Telecommunications company wanted to identify those customer it
risked losing
Action
Using data warehousing and data mining in analysing customer behaviour
Benefit
The company was able to identify those customers take immediate
marketing action to retain them
Video of Mr Mike Walsh
16. KM in Action
• Dissemination of Right Knowledge, Right Time, Right Place 6
Problem
A multinational lost a major order to a competitor because the market
intelligence
Action
The company responded by linking staff around the world and providing
them with competitor analysis
Benefit
The company is able to pass on intelligence to the right place in a timely
manner
17. KM in Action 7
• Sharing Knowledge for
Cooperative Solving
Problem
An oil rig was faced with
shutdown when a key
part and its first
replacement both failed,
leaving only one
remaining spare
Action
Using technologies
summoned up technical
skills from engineers, the
supplier, the
manufacturer’s research
laboratory and designers
Benefit
Their combined advice
ensured the last
remaining spare was
fitted
safely and the rig
continued to operate
18. KM Scenario
• Access to everything published within an organization
• A solution to information overload
• Virtual Work Environments for collaborative working
• Communication of corporate news in a relevant and timely
manner
• Real-time virtual communities to share opinions and insights
• Sharing with customers, suppliers and partners
19. Common KM Application Initiatives
• Skills/Expert Directory (Yellow Pages) • Individual Learning
• Video Conferencing • Group Learning
• Digital Whiteboards • Communities of Practice
• Electronic Forum (CoP)
• Decision Support System (DSS) Tools • Storytelling
• Rational Capture Tools • Cultural Initiatives
• Knowledge Portal • Coaching
• Collaboration Application • Mentoring
• Virtual Team Tools • Training Programme
• Email • and more to come…
• Discussion Group
• Intranets
• Search Engine
21. Perspectives on KM Application
Information-based Technology-based Culture-based
• Categorization of data • Data mining • Collective learning
• Corporate yellow pages • Data warehousing • Continuous learning
• Filtered information • Expert systems • Learning organization
• Information archiving • Intelligent agents
• Intranet
• Multimedia
• Search engines
22. Potential Benefits of KM
Process Outcomes Organizational Outcomes
Communication Financial
• Enhanced communication • Increased sales
• Faster communication • Decreased cost
• More visible opinions • Higher profitability
• Increased participation
Marketing
Efficiency • Better service
• Reduced problem-solving time • Customer focus
• Shortening proposal times • Targeted marketing
• Faster results • Proactive marketing
• Faster delivery to market
• Greater overall efficiency General
• Improved project management
• Personnel reduction
23. Where Should KM Be?
Administration?
IT Department?
Research
& Development (R&D)?
Customer
Service? Human Resource
Department?
Sales and Accounts and
Marketing Finance Department?
Department?
26. Pick-a-boo Pop Quiz : What is it?
• I have a box
• The box is 3' wide, 3' deep, and 6' high
• The box is very heavy
• The box has a door on the front of it
• When I open the box it has food in it
• It is colder inside the box than it is outside
• You usually find the box in the kitchen
• There is a smaller compartment inside the box with ice in it
• When you open the door the light comes on
• When you move this box you usually find lots of dirt underneath it
?
It is a REFRIGERATOR
27. ‘Knowledge Management’
Why Now?
• Growing awareness of the importance of knowledge to organizational
success
• Technology has made the sharing of knowledge more feasible
28. Why KM is Important
• a growing emphasis on creating customer value
• an increasingly competitive marketplace
• reduced cycle times and shortened product development
times
• a need for organizational adaptation
• a requirement to operate with a shrinking number of
assets
• a reduction in the amount of time employees changes in
strategic directions
29. The Benefits of KM
• Facilitates better, more informed decisions
• Contributes to the intellectual capital
• Encourages the free flow of ideas
• Eliminates redundant processes
• Improves customer service and efficiency
• Leads to greater productivity
31. KM and its Challenges
• Getting Employees on Board
• Allowing Technology to Dictate KM
• Not Having a Specific Business Goal
• KM is Not Static
• Not All Information is Knowledge
32. 3 Major Myths
• ‘Build It and They Will Come’
• ‘Technology can Replace Face-to-Face’
• ‘First, Create a Learning Culture’
33. ‘Build It and They Will Come’
- Mental image of ‘warehouse’
- Build a central electronic database and spent a considerable
amount of money
- But very little happens; neither contributions nor retrievals
occur with much enthusiasm
- ‘Fix’ through an incentive system
k
k
k
* To alter the image of ‘warehouse’ k
k
- from collecting & storing to reusing it
34. ‘Technology can Replace Face-to-Face’
- ‘Talking’ – Training Programme, Conferences
- But getting people together is costly (travel and time away
from job)
- Through technology – allow people to share knowledge
without having to be in the same place
* Technology has to be married with face-to-face
interaction to create the most effective systems
35. ‘First, Create a Learning Culture’
- Competitive Culture – no one is going to tell anyone else
something that might help the other person get ahead
- Knowledge sharing only happens in organizations with a
noncompetitive or a collaborative culture
- So, change the culture
* If people begin sharing ideas about issues they see as really
important, the sharing itself creates a learning culture.
36. Drivers of KM
:: Knowledge-centric Drivers
• Knowledge recognition failure
• Need for Smart knowledge distribution
• Tacit knowledge walkouts
• Knowledge hoarding
• Learn to Unlearn
WEEK 3 PRESENTATION : Question for group 1
37. Drivers of KM
:: Technology Drivers
• Technology provides temporary advantage
• Compressed product & process lifecycle
• Link between knowledge, relationship capital, market strategy
and information technology
WEEK 3 PRESENTATION : Question for group 2
38. Drivers of KM
:: Organizational Structure-based Drivers
• Functional convergence
• Convergence of products and services
• New organizational structures
• Deregulation & globalization
WEEK 3 PRESENTATION : Question for group 3
39. Drivers of KM
:: Process Focused Drivers
• Expensive, repeated mistakes and reinvention of solutions
• Proactive opportunity-seeking behavior
• Responsiveness
WEEK 3 PRESENTATION : Question for group 4
40. Drivers of KM
:: Economic Drivers
• Increasing returns
• Differentiation
WEEK 3 PRESENTATION : Question for group 5
41. Is Your Company Ready for KM?
1. Scanning imperative
i. Does your company truly understand the environment in which it
function?
ii. Does it gather information about practices and conditions outside
the organization?
iii. Is there awareness about how your company’s internal operations
compare with those of your competitors?
6. Shared perception of performance gaps
i. Is there a shared and relatively well agreed upon perception of how
things are in your company and of how they actually need to be?
9. Metrics
i. How things are measured. Is everything measured solely on the basis
of financial outcomes?
42. Is Your Company Ready for KM?
• Corporate culture – ‘technology can lead the horse to the water but
cannot make him drink it’
i. Is your corporate culture accept debate and conflict as ways of
solving problems?
• Knowledge champions – need for Knowledge Champions from
different functional areas
6. Strategic alignment – knowledge strategy needs to be closely tied to
the company’s business strategy
7. Begin with what you know – accept your current data and information
assets and begin by leveraging those first
43. To transfer the knowledge (message) starts with
how you manage it first!
ViDeO
Dr Randy Paush
Editor's Notes
Knowledge resides with just one or two key employees, and when the particular persons were transferred, the knowledge was loss Unable to acquire information because the person in charge or the data involved is not available at the time and place when it was needed A decision making process has to be postponed due to unavailability of the persons who are responsible “ Sorry, I’m not sure what projects my colleagues are involved in now” All documents labelled with ‘ Private and Confidential ’, and no one is supposed to open it
When asked to tender for a major project, collecting the necessary information - becomes a project in itself. As a result, the tender document is not as good as it could been When faced with a serious, but unusual failure in the plant, somebody remembers that the same situation occur a couple of years before, but there is no record of the methodology used to solve the problem the previous time, nor of who was involved The internal telephone directory is out of date the moment it is printed. It tells names and formal titles, but very little about the people or what they can do. In no sense does it provide an effective tool for finding people with specific expertise or experience when needed There is a large discrepancies between the performances of different divisions carrying out essentially the same task. Best practices are not being captured and shared
Taking too long for new skills to be applied throughout the organisation, giving away the edge to competitors who learn faster. The same skill may have to be developed in different parts of the organisation because it has not been shared. The mistakes made cause high after-sales and rework costs Decision-making performance may be impacted because the best know-how is not available to those who need it, when and where they need it.
Problem A multinational noticed that performance across its sales divisions in different markets was not comparable, even taking local conditions into account. The company analysed and codified the practices of the best-performing sales divisions and made these available to all divisions. Benefit Subsequent measurement showed gains running to hundreds of millions of dollars in the medium term through improved performance in those divisions that implemented best practices.
Problem A commercial bank needed to be able to put together its expertise from around the world on different industries, territories and financial instruments, quickly and efficiently in order to compete successfully for corporate finance business. They developed and published a sophisticated directory identifying experts and their subjects. Benefit They conservatively estimated that by only increasing the deal success rate by 1% the directory would contribute more than ten times return on a modest investment.
Problem A chemical company had thousands of patents with annual registration fees running into millions of dollars. It created a new function tasked with getting more value from these assets. Benefit Those patents with commercial potential were licensed, and those without were discontinued. The company gained a five-fold increase in licensing income and saved millions of dollars in registration fees.
Problem A credit card organisation knew that its customer profile was affecting profitability but was unable to identify which customers represented the most profitable business. Using a data warehouse it was able to apply its knowledge to identify which customers were unprofitable and should be terminated, and which customer retention programmes were effective. Benefit The organisation was able to target its efforts on that part of the customer base likely to offer the best margins.
Problem A Telecommunications company was suffering from above-average customer turnover and wanted to identify those customer it risked losing. Using data warehousing and data mining it analysed customer behaviour and noted a characteristic three-month pattern in customers who left. Benefit The company was able to identify those customers at risk and take immediate marketing action to retain them.
Problem A multinational lost a major order to a competitor because the market intelligence passed on by one of its salesman in another part of the world had failed to reach headquarters in time, owing to organisational boundaries and different time zones. The company responded by linking hundreds of sales staff and major account managers around the world and providing them with sources of customer and competitor analysis. Benefit The company is able to pass on intelligence to the right place in a timely manner in a highly competitive and rapidly changing environment.
Problem An oil rig was faced with shutdown when a key part and its first replacement both failed, leaving only one remaining spare. The owner, using technologies ranging from databases to video-conferencing, summoned up technical skills from its worldwide engineers, the supplier of the equipment, the manufacturer’s research laboratory and one of the designers. Benefit Their combined advice ensured the last remaining spare was fitted safely and the rig continued to operate, so avoiding the loss of hundreds of thousands of dollars.
Definition of ‘APPLICATION’ Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary = Act of putting a theory, discovery, etc. to practical use ‘ application software’ in computing= subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform
a growing emphasis on creating customer value and improving customer service an increasingly competitive marketplace with a rising rate of innovation reduced cycle times and shortened product development times a need for organizational adaptation because of changing business rules and assumptions a requirement to operate with a shrinking number of assets (people, inventory, and facilities) a reduction in the amount of time employees are given to acquire new knowledge changes in strategic directions and workforce mobility that lead to knowledge loss
Facilitates better, more informed decisions Contributes to the intellectual capital of an organization Encourages the free flow of ideas which leads to insight and innovation Eliminates redundant processes, streamlines operations, and enhances employee retention rates Improves customer service and efficiency Leads to greater productivity
* Technology has to be married with face-to-face interaction to create the most effective systems * One does not replace the other, although clearly one can greatly enhance the other
Knowledge recognition failure - companies don’t know what they already know - reinventing old wheels 2. Need for Smart knowledge distribution - employees can’t find critical existing knowledge in time - lessons are learned but not shared - no knowledge gained from failures-it is soon forgotten - expertise is not shared 3. Tacit knowledge walkouts - critical tacit knowledge is close held by a few key individuals-capabilities are movable to competitors - employee departure causes loss of key clients, suppliers, best practices, and even revenue 4. Knowledge hoarding - individual employees closely guard knowledge and insights-fear of job security exists - collaboration is only namesake 5. Learn to Unlearn - assumptions, rules of thumb, and processes are unreliable or outdated - old practices, methods, and processes continue to be inappropriately applied
6. Technology provides temporary advantage - technological innovation and adoption fails to sustain competitive advantage - only provides temporary advantage – no longer a competitive differentiator 7. Compressed product & process lifecycle - market information, service, and physical product lifecycles have significantly shortened - frequent changes in the software, hardware etc. 8. Link between knowledge, relationship capital, market strategy and information technology - business and IT strategy are not aligned - need for perfect link between knowledge, business strategy, and information
9. Functional convergence - complex dependencies among and between different functional areas - team members lack understanding of the critical process factors for areas other than their own - need for conversation and discussion that precede collaboration and effective sharing of knowledge 10. Convergence of products and services - products & services are increasingly bundled - blurred boundaries between products/services 11. New organizational structures - ad hoc project-centered team structures bringing together the best of their talent and expertise - skills developed during the collaboration process lost 12. Deregulation & globalization - virtual collaboration and global remote teaming occurs among highly distributed teams and partnering firms - challenges brought about by deregulation and inability to keep up due to globalization
13. Expensive, repeated mistakes and reinvention of solutions - business incur unnecessary expense to relearn the same lessons - knowledge is neither being effectively retained nor shared 14. Proactive opportunity-seeking behavior - inability to integrate external knowledge with internal expertise - by integrating company’s collective knowledge, can turn business turbulence into opportunity 15. Responsiveness - using the right application of knowledge within the structures and processes to response to customer needs - ability to proactively anticipate and respond to market trend
16. Increasing returns - high start-up cost can be spread out - multiple users can simultaneously benefit from knowledge assets and increase its value as they add to, adapt, enhance, enrich, and validate it 17. Differentiation - traditional capital assets no longer suffices as a competitive differentiator - building and deploying knowledge capital provide a sustainable source of competitive differentiation
Scanning imperative Questions may help in determining such scanning imperative exists in your company: i. Does your company truly understand the environment in which it function? ii. Does it gather information about practices and conditions outside the organization? iii. Is there awareness about how your company’s internal operations compare with those of your competitors? Shared perception of performance gaps i. Is there a shared and relatively well agreed upon perception of how things are in your company and of how they actually need to be? Metrics i. How things are measured. Is everything measured solely on the basis of financial outcomes?