Introduction to meta-analysis (1612_MA_workshop)Ahmed Negida
Chapter 1: Introduction to Meta-analysis
- From the 1612 MA Workshop that will be held on 11th, December, 2016 at Dokki, Giza, Egypt
- Workshop instructor: Mr. Ahmed Negida, MBBCh candidate
Chapter 6 part2-Introduction to Inference-Tests of Significance, Stating Hyp...nszakir
Mathematics, Statistics, Introduction to Inference, Tests of Significance, The Reasoning of Tests of Significance, Stating Hypotheses, Test Statistics, P-values, Statistical Significance, Test for a Population Mean, Two-Sided Significance Tests and Confidence Intervals
These annotated slides will help you interpret an OR or RR in clinical terms. Please download these slides and view them in PowerPoint so you can view the annotations describing each slide.
Introduction to meta-analysis (1612_MA_workshop)Ahmed Negida
Chapter 1: Introduction to Meta-analysis
- From the 1612 MA Workshop that will be held on 11th, December, 2016 at Dokki, Giza, Egypt
- Workshop instructor: Mr. Ahmed Negida, MBBCh candidate
Chapter 6 part2-Introduction to Inference-Tests of Significance, Stating Hyp...nszakir
Mathematics, Statistics, Introduction to Inference, Tests of Significance, The Reasoning of Tests of Significance, Stating Hypotheses, Test Statistics, P-values, Statistical Significance, Test for a Population Mean, Two-Sided Significance Tests and Confidence Intervals
These annotated slides will help you interpret an OR or RR in clinical terms. Please download these slides and view them in PowerPoint so you can view the annotations describing each slide.
This presentation will address the issue of sample size determination for social sciences. A simple example is provided for every to understand and explain the sample size determination.
Clinical Research Statistics for Non-StatisticiansBrook White, PMP
Through real-world examples, this presentation teaches strategies for choosing appropriate outcome measures, methods for analysis and randomization, and sample sizes as well as tips for collecting the right data to answer your scientific questions.
This presentation will address the issue of sample size determination for social sciences. A simple example is provided for every to understand and explain the sample size determination.
Clinical Research Statistics for Non-StatisticiansBrook White, PMP
Through real-world examples, this presentation teaches strategies for choosing appropriate outcome measures, methods for analysis and randomization, and sample sizes as well as tips for collecting the right data to answer your scientific questions.
Biostatistics - the application of statistical methods in the life sciences including medicine, pharmacy, and agriculture.
An understanding is needed in practice issues requiring sound decisions.
Statistics is a decision science.
Biostatistics therefore deals with data.
Biostatistics is the science of obtaining, analyzing and interpreting data in order to understand and improve human health.
Applications of Biostatistics
Design and analysis of clinical trials
Quality control of pharmaceuticals
Pharmacy practice research
Public health, including epidemiology
Genomics and population genetics
Ecology
Biological sequence analysis
Bioinformatics etc.
Biostatistics in clinical research involves the application of statistical methods to analyze and interpret data from clinical trials. It plays a crucial role in study design, sample size determination, data analysis, and result interpretation. Biostatisticians ensure that clinical research findings are valid, reliable, and meaningful, contributing to evidence-based medicine. Their expertise helps researchers make informed decisions, assess treatment efficacy, and draw accurate conclusions about the safety and effectiveness of interventions.
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
Medical Technology Tackles New Health Care Demand - Research Report - March 2...pchutichetpong
M Capital Group (“MCG”) predicts that with, against, despite, and even without the global pandemic, the medical technology (MedTech) industry shows signs of continuous healthy growth, driven by smaller, faster, and cheaper devices, growing demand for home-based applications, technological innovation, strategic acquisitions, investments, and SPAC listings. MCG predicts that this should reflects itself in annual growth of over 6%, well beyond 2028.
According to Chris Mouchabhani, Managing Partner at M Capital Group, “Despite all economic scenarios that one may consider, beyond overall economic shocks, medical technology should remain one of the most promising and robust sectors over the short to medium term and well beyond 2028.”
There is a movement towards home-based care for the elderly, next generation scanning and MRI devices, wearable technology, artificial intelligence incorporation, and online connectivity. Experts also see a focus on predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory, and precision medicine, with rising levels of integration of home care and technological innovation.
The average cost of treatment has been rising across the board, creating additional financial burdens to governments, healthcare providers and insurance companies. According to MCG, cost-per-inpatient-stay in the United States alone rose on average annually by over 13% between 2014 to 2021, leading MedTech to focus research efforts on optimized medical equipment at lower price points, whilst emphasizing portability and ease of use. Namely, 46% of the 1,008 medical technology companies in the 2021 MedTech Innovator (“MTI”) database are focusing on prevention, wellness, detection, or diagnosis, signaling a clear push for preventive care to also tackle costs.
In addition, there has also been a lasting impact on consumer and medical demand for home care, supported by the pandemic. Lockdowns, closure of care facilities, and healthcare systems subjected to capacity pressure, accelerated demand away from traditional inpatient care. Now, outpatient care solutions are driving industry production, with nearly 70% of recent diagnostics start-up companies producing products in areas such as ambulatory clinics, at-home care, and self-administered diagnostics.
CRISPR-Cas9, a revolutionary gene-editing tool, holds immense potential to reshape medicine, agriculture, and our understanding of life. But like any powerful tool, it comes with ethical considerations.
Unveiling CRISPR: This naturally occurring bacterial defense system (crRNA & Cas9 protein) fights viruses. Scientists repurposed it for precise gene editing (correction, deletion, insertion) by targeting specific DNA sequences.
The Promise: CRISPR offers exciting possibilities:
Gene Therapy: Correcting genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis.
Agriculture: Engineering crops resistant to pests and harsh environments.
Research: Studying gene function to unlock new knowledge.
The Peril: Ethical concerns demand attention:
Off-target Effects: Unintended DNA edits can have unforeseen consequences.
Eugenics: Misusing CRISPR for designer babies raises social and ethical questions.
Equity: High costs could limit access to this potentially life-saving technology.
The Path Forward: Responsible development is crucial:
International Collaboration: Clear guidelines are needed for research and human trials.
Public Education: Open discussions ensure informed decisions about CRISPR.
Prioritize Safety and Ethics: Safety and ethical principles must be paramount.
CRISPR offers a powerful tool for a better future, but responsible development and addressing ethical concerns are essential. By prioritizing safety, fostering open dialogue, and ensuring equitable access, we can harness CRISPR's power for the benefit of all. (2998 characters)
Telehealth Psychology Building Trust with Clients.pptxThe Harvest Clinic
Telehealth psychology is a digital approach that offers psychological services and mental health care to clients remotely, using technologies like video conferencing, phone calls, text messaging, and mobile apps for communication.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Deep Leg Vein Thrombosis (DVT): Meaning, Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, and Mor...The Lifesciences Magazine
Deep Leg Vein Thrombosis occurs when a blood clot forms in one or more of the deep veins in the legs. These clots can impede blood flow, leading to severe complications.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
The Importance of Community Nursing Care.pdfAD Healthcare
NDIS and Community 24/7 Nursing Care is a specific type of support that may be provided under the NDIS for individuals with complex medical needs who require ongoing nursing care in a community setting, such as their home or a supported accommodation facility.
6. Types of Data
Discrete Data-limited number of choices
Binary: two choices (yes/no)
Dead or alive
Disease-free or not
Categorical: more than two choices, not ordered
Race
Age group
Ordinal: more than two choices, ordered
Stages of a cancer
Likert scale for response
E.G. strongly agree, agree, neither agree or disagree, etc.
7. Types of data
Continuous data
Theoretically infinite possible values (within
physiologic limits) , including fractional values
Height, age, weight
Can be interval
Interval between measures has meaning.
Ratio of two interval data points has no meaning
Temperature in celsius, day of the year).
Can be ratio
Ratio of the measures has meaning
Weight, height
8. Types of Data
Why important?
The type of data defines:
The summary measures used
Mean, Standard deviation for continuous data
Proportions for discrete data
Statistics used for analysis:
Examples:
T-test for normally distributed continuous
Wilcoxon Rank Sum for non-normally distributed
continuous
9. Descriptive Statistics
Characterize data set
Graphical presentation
Histograms
Frequency distribution
Box and whiskers plot
Numeric description
Mean, median, SD, interquartile range
13. Box and Whisker Plots
Popular in Epidemiologic Studies
Useful for presenting comparative data graphically
14. Numeric Descriptive Statistics
Measures of central tendency of data
Mean
Median
Mode
Measures of variability of
data(dispersion)
Standard Deviation, mean deviation
Interquartile range, variance
15. Mean
Most commonly used measure of central tendency
Best applied in normally distributed continuous data.
Not applicable in categorical data
Definition:
Sum of all the values in a sample, divided by the number of
values.
16. Eg mean Height of 6 adolescent
children 146 ,142,150,148,156,140
Ans ?
882/6 =147
17. Median
Used to indicate the “average” in a
skewed population
Often reported with the mean
If the mean and the median are the same,
sample is normally distributed.
18. It is the middle value from an ordered
listing of the values
If an odd number of values, it is the middle
value 1.2.3.4.5 ie 3
If even number of values, it is the average
of the two middle values.1,2,3,4,5,6 ie
3+4/2 = 3.5
Mid-value in interquartile range
20. Interquartile range
Is the range of data from the 25th percentile
to the 75th percentile
Common component of a box and whiskers
plot
It is the box, and the line across the box is the
median or middle value
Rarely, mean will also be displayed.
21.
22. Mean deviation(standard
deviation )
Mean deviation(SD) = £I X- I / nẌ
n is the no of observations is the mean ,Ẍ
X each observation
Square mean deviation= variance=
£I X- I² / nẌ
Root mean square deviation =√£I X- I² / nẌ
23. Variance
Square of SD(standard deviation )
Coefficient of variance = SD/ mean x 100
Eg. If sd is 3 mean is 150
Variance is 9, coefficient of variance is
300/150 = 2
24. Standard Error
A fundamental goal of statistical analysis is to
estimate a parameter of a population based
on a sample
The values of a specific variable from a
sample are an estimate of the entire
population of individuals who might have
been eligible for the study.
A measure of the precision of a sample
25. Standard Error
Standard error of the mean
Standard deviation / square root of (sample
size)
(if sample greater than 60)
Sd/ √n
Important: dependent on sample size
Larger the sample, the smaller the
26. Clarification
Standard Deviation measures the
variability or spread of the data in an
individual sample.
Standard error measures the precision
of the estimate of a population
parameter provided by the sample
mean or proportion.
27. Standard Error
Significance:
Is the basis of confidence intervals
A 95% confidence interval is defined by
Sample mean (or proportion) ± 1.96 X standard error
Since standard error is inversely related to the
sample size:
The larger the study (sample size), the smaller the
confidence intervals and the greater the precision of the
estimate.
28.
Mean +/- 1 sd = 68.27% value
Mean +/- 2 sd = 95.49% value
Mean +/- 3 sd = 99.7% value
Mean +/- 4 sd = 99.9% value
29. Confidence Intervals
May be used to assess a single point
estimate such as mean or proportion.
Most commonly used in assessing the
estimate of the difference between two
groups.
31. P Values
The probability that any observation is
due to chance alone assuming that the
null hypothesis is true
Typically, an estimate that has a p
value of 0.05 or less is considered to
be “statistically significant” or unlikely
to occur due to chance alone. Null
hypothesis rejected
32. The P value used is an arbitrary value
P value of 0.05 equals 1 in 20
chance
P value of 0.01 equals 1 in 100
chance
P value of 0.001 equals 1 in 1000
chance.
33. Errors
Type I error
Claiming a difference between two
samples when in fact there is none.
Remember there is variability among samples-
they might seem to come from different
populations but they may not.
Also called the α error.
Typically 0.05 is used
34. Errors
Type II error
Claiming there is no difference between
two samples when in fact there is.
Also called a β error.
The probability of not making a Type II
error is 1 - β, which is called the power of
the test.
Hidden error because can’t be detected
without a proper power analysis
36. Sample Size Calculation
Also called “power analysis”.
When designing a study, one needs to
determine how large a study is needed.
Power is the ability of a study to avoid a
Type II error.
Sample size calculation yields the
number of study subjects needed, given
a certain desired power to detect a
difference and a certain level of P value
that will be considered significant.
37. Sample Size Calculation
Depends on:
Level of Type I error: 0.05 typical
Level of Type II error: 0.20 typical
One sided vs two sided: nearly always two
Inherent variability of population
Usually estimated from preliminary data
The difference that would be meaningful
between the two assessment arms.
38. One-sided vs. Two-sided
Most tests should be framed as a two-
sided test.
When comparing two samples, we usually
cannot be sure which is going to be be
better.
You never know which directions study results
will go.
For routine medical research, use only two-
sided tests.
39. Statistical Tests
Parametric tests
Continuous data normally distributed
Non-parametric tests
Continuous data not normally distributed
Categorical or Ordinal data
40. Comparison of 2 Sample Means
Student’s T test
Assumes normally distributed continuous
data.
T value = difference between means
standard error of difference
T value then looked up in Table to
determine significance
41. Paired T Tests
Uses the change before
and after intervention in a
single individual
Reduces the degree of
variability between the
groups
Given the same number
of patients, has greater
power to detect a
difference between groups
42. Analysis of Variance(ANOVA)
Used to determine if two or more
samples are from the same
population-
If two samples, is the same as
the T test.
Usually used for 3 or more
samples.
43. Non-parametric Tests
Testing proportions
(Pearson’s) Chi-Squared (χ2) Test
Fisher’s Exact Test
Testing ordinal variables
Mann Whiney “U” Test
Kruskal-Wallis One-way ANOVA
Testing Ordinal Paired Variables
Sign Test
Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test
44. Use of non-parametric tests
Use for categorical, ordinal or non-normally
distributed continuous data
May check both parametric and non-
parametric tests to check for congruity
Most non-parametric tests are based on
ranks or other non- value related methods
Interpretation:
Is the P value significant?
45. (Pearson’s) Chi-Squared (χ2) Test
Used to compare observed proportions of an
event compared to expected.
Used with nominal data (better/ worse;
dead/alive)
If there is a substantial difference between
observed and expected, then it is likely that
the null hypothesis is rejected.
Often presented graphically as a 2 X 2 Table
46. Non parametric test
For comparing 2 related samples
-Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
For comparing 2 unrelated samples
-Mann- Whitney U Test
For comparing >2groups
-Kruskal Walli Test
47. Mann–Whitney U test
Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon (MWW), Wilcoxon
rank-sum test, or Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney
test) is a non-parametric test especially that a
particular population tends to have larger
values than the other.
It has greater efficiency than the t-test on non-
normal distributions, such as
a mixture of normal distributions, and it is
nearly as efficient as the t-test on normal
distributions.
48. STUDENT T TEST
A t-test is any statistical hypothesis
test in which the test statistic follows
a normal
distri bution if the null hypothesis is
supported.
It can be used to determine if two sets of
data are significantly different from each
other, and is most commonly applied
when the test statistic would follow
a normal distribution
49. The Kaplan–Meier estimator,also known
as the product limit estimator, is
an estimator for estimating the survival
function from lifetime data.
In medical research, it is often used to
measure the fraction of patients living for a
certain amount of time after treatment.
The estimator is named after Edward L.
Kaplan and Paul Meier.
50. A plot of the Kaplan–Meier
estimate of the survival function is
a series of horizontal steps of
declining magnitude which, when
a large enough sample is taken,
approaches the true survival
function for that population.
51.
52.
53. ODDS RATIO
In case control study –
measure of the strength of the
association between risk factor
and out come
59. RR=lncidence of disease among exposed/
incidence among non exposed
Relative risk of lung cancer=10/1=10
Incidence of lung cancer is 10 times higher in
exposed group (smokers) , ie having a
Positive relationship with smoking
Larger RR ,more the strength of association
60. Attributable risk
It is the difference in incidence
rates of disease between exposed
group(EG) and non exposed
group(NEG)
Often expressed in percent
61. (Incidence of disease rate in EG-
Incidence of disease in
NEG/incidence rate in EG ) * 100
. AR= 10-1/10=90%
Ie 90% lung cancers in smokers was
due to their smoking
62. Population attributable Risk
It is the incidence of the disease in total
population - the incidence of disease
among those who were not exposed to
the suspected causal factor/incidence of
disease in total population
PAR=7.3-1/7.3=86.3%, ie 86.3 %
disease can be avoided if risk factors like
cigarettes were avoided
63. Mortality rates & Ratios
Crude Death rate
No of deaths (from all cases )per
1000 estimated mid year
population(MYP) in one year in a
given place
CDR=(No. deaths during the
64. CDR in Panchayath A is
15.2/1000
Panchayath B is 8.2/1000
population
Health status of Panchayath B is
better than A
65. Specific Death rate=(No of diseases due to
specific diseases during a calendar year/
MYP)*1,000
Can calculate death rate in separate diseases
eg . TB, HIV 2/1000, 1/1000 resp
Age groups 5-20yrs, <5yrs - 1/1000, 3/3000
resp.
Sex eg. More in males,
Specific months,etc
66. Case fatality rate(ratio)
(Total no of deaths due to a particular
disease/Total no of cases due to same
disease)*100
Usually described in A/c infectious
diseases
Dengue, cholera, food poisoning etc
Represent killing power of the disease
67. Proportional mortality rate(ratio)
Due to a specific disease=(No of
deaths from the specific disease in a
year/ Total deaths in an year )*100
Under 5 Mortality rate=(No of deaths
under 5 years of age in a given
year/Total no of deaths during the
same period)*100
68. Survival rate
(Total no of patients alive after
5yrs/Total no of patients diagnosed
or treated)*100
Method of prognosis of certain
disease conditions mainly in
cancers
69. INCIDENCE
No of new cases occurring in a defined
population during a specified period of time
(No of new cases of specific disease during a
given time period / Population at risk)*1000
Eg 500 new cases of TB in a population of
30000, Incidence is (500/3000)*1000
ie 16.7/1000/yr expressed as incidence rate
70. Incidence-uses
Can be expressed as Special
incidence rate , Attack rate ,
Hospital admission rate , case rate
etc
Measures the rate at which new
cases are occurring in a population
Not influenced by duration
Generally use is restricted to acute
71. PREVALENCE
Refers specifically to all current
cases (old & new) existing at a
given point of time, or a period of
time in a given population
Referred to as a rate , it is really a
a ratio
72. Point prevalence=(No of all currant cases
(old& new) of a specified disease existing
at a given point of time / Estimated
population at the same point of time)*100
Period prevalence=(No of existing cases
(old& new) of a specified disease during
a given period of time / Estimated mid
interval population at risk)*100
73.
74. Incidence - 3,4,5,8
Point prevalence at jan 1- 1,2& 7
Point prevalence at Dec 31- 1,3,5&8
Period prevalence(jan-Dec)-
1,2,3,4,5,7&8
76. PREVALENCE-USES
Helps to estimate magnitude of
health/disease problems in the
community, & identify potential high risk
populations
Prevalence rates are especially useful
for administrative and planning
purposes
eg: hospital beds, man power
needs,rehabilation facilities etc.
78. P value & its interpretation
“it is the probability of type 1 error”
The chance that, a difference or
association is concluded , when actually
there is none.
79. Study of prevalence of obesity in male
& female child in a classroom.
50 students
of 25 boys- 10 obese
of 25 girls - 16 obese
p value : 0.02
81. study ,Bubble vs conventional CPAP for
prevention of extubation Failure( EF) in
preterm very low birth weight infants.
EF bCPAP =4(16)
cCPAP =9(16)
p value-0.14
82. Null hypothesis: “ no difference in EF
among preterm babies treated with
bCPAP &cCPAP.”
83. 95% CI
95%CI= Mean ‡1.96SD(2SD)
= Mean ‡ 2SE
1) 100 children attending pediatric OP.
mean wt=15kg SD=2
95%CI =?
84. Interpretation of 95%CI
If a test is repeated 100times , 95 times
the mean value comes between this
value.
If CI of 2 variables overlap, the chance
of significant difference is very less.
86. Chi-Squared (χ2) Test
Chi-Squared (χ2) Formula
Not applicable in small samples
If fewer than 5 observations per cell, use
Fisher’s exact test
88. Correlation
Assesses the linear relationship between two variables
Example: height and weight
Strength of the association is described by a correlation
coefficient- r
r = 0 - .2 low, probably meaningless
r = .2 - .4 low, possible importance
r = .4 - .6 moderate correlation
r = .6 - .8 high correlation
r = .8 - 1 very high correlation
Can be positive or negative
Pearson’s, Spearman correlation coefficient
Tells nothing about causation
91. Regression
Based on fitting a line to data
Provides a regression coefficient, which is the slope of the
line
Y = ax + b
Use to predict a dependent variable’s value based on the
value of an independent variable.
Very helpful- In analysis of height and weight, for a known
height, one can predict weight.
Much more useful than correlation
Allows prediction of values of Y rather than just whether
there is a relationship between two variable.
92. Regression
Types of regression
Linear- uses continuous data to predict continuous
data outcome
Logistic- uses continuous data to predict
probability of a dichotomous outcome
Poisson regression- time between rare events.
Cox proportional hazards regression- survival
analysis.
93. Multiple Regression Models
Determining the association between two
variables while controlling for the values of
others.
Example: Uterine Fibroids
Both age and race impact the incidence of
fibroids.
Multiple regression allows one to test the impact of
age on the incidence while controlling for race
(and all other factors)
94. Multiple Regression Models
In published papers, the multivariable models are
more powerful than univariable models and take
precedence.
Therefore we discount the univariable model as it does not
control for confounding variables.
Eg: Coronary disease is potentially affected by age, HTN,
smoking status, gender and many other factors.
If assessing whether height is a factor:
If it is significant on univariable analysis, but not on
multivariable analysis, these other factors confounded the
analysis.
95. Survivial Analysis
Evaluation of time to an event (death,
recurrence, recover).
Provides means of handling censored data
Patients who do not reach the event by the end of
the study or who are lost to follow-up
Most common type is Kaplan-Meier analysis
Curves presented as stepwise change from
baseline
There are no fixed intervals of follow-up- survival
proportion recalculated after each event.
98. Kaplan-Meier Analysis
Provides a graphical means of comparing the
outcomes of two groups that vary by intervention or
other factor.
Survival rates can be measured directly from curve.
Difference between curves can be tested for
statistical significance.
99. Cox Regression Model
Proportional Hazards Survival Model.
Used to investigate relationship between an event
(death, recurrence) occurring over time and possible
explanatory factors.
Reported result: Hazard ratio (HR).
Ratio of the hazard in one group divided the hazard in
another.
Interpreted same as risk ratios and odds ratios
HR 1 = no effect
HR > 1 increased risk
HR < 1 decreased risk
100. Cox Regression Model
Common use in long-term studies
where various factors might predispose
to an event.
Example: after uterine embolization, which
factors (age, race, uterine size, etc) might
make recurrence more likely.
101. True disease state vs. Test result
not rejected rejected
No disease
(D = 0)
specificity
X
Type I error
(False +) α
Disease
(D = 1)
X
Type II error
(False -) β
Power 1 - β;
sensitivity
Disease
Test
104. Test Result
Call these patients “negative” Call these patients “positive”
without the disease
with the disease
True Positives
Some definitions ...
105. Test Result
Call these patients “negative” Call these patients “positive”
without the disease
with the disease
False
Positives
106. Test Result
Call these patients “negative” Call these patients “positive”
without the disease
with the disease
True
negatives
107. Test Result
Call these patients “negative” Call these patients “positive”
without the disease
with the disease
False
negatives
108. Test Result
without the disease
with the disease
‘‘‘‘-’’-’’ ‘‘‘‘+’’+’’
Moving the Threshold: right
109. Test Result
without the disease
with the disease
‘‘‘‘-’’-’’ ‘‘‘‘+’’+’’
Moving the Threshold: left
115. An example forest plot of five odds
ratios (squares) with the summary
measure (centre line of diamond)
and associated confidence
intervals (lateral tips of diamond),
and solid vertical line of no effect.
Names of (fictional) studies are
shown on the left, odds ratios and
115
116. A forest plot (or blobbogram[1]
) is a
graphical display designed to illustrate
the relative strength of treatment effects
in multiple quantitative scientific studies
addressing the same question. It was
developed for use in medical research
as a means of graphically representing
a meta-analysis of the results of
randomized controlled trials.
116
118. i. Probably a small study, with a wide
CI, crossing the line of no effect (OR =
1). Unable to say if the intervention
works
ii. Probably a small study, wide CI , but
does not cross OR = 1; suggests
intervention works but weak evidence
iii. Larger study, narrow CI: but crosses
OR = 1; no evidence that intervention
119. iv. Large study, narrow confidence
intervals: entirely to left of OR = 1;
suggests intervention works
v. Small study, wide confidence
intervals, suggests intervention is
detrimental
vi. Meta-analysis of all identified
studies: suggests intervention works.
120. PICOT
Used to test evidence based research
Population
Intervension or issue
Comparison with another intervention
Outcome
Time frame
Editor's Notes
Similar: use both to compare groups
sd = difference between each value and the mean, squared, then all added together and divided by (n-1) THEN take the square root of this value