Jainism

 Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes
pacifism and a path of non-violence
towards all living beings.
 Jainism is commonly referred to as Jain Dharma in Hindi and
Samanam in Tamil.
 Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and
achieved the state of supreme being is called Jina
(Conqueror or Victor).
 According to Jainism ontologically there are two kinds of
substances namely Jiva and Ajiva.
 Jiva means living things and ajiva means non living things.

 Navakar mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism .
 The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate
goal of reaching nirvana or moksha.
 When a soul is free from karmas, it becomes free
and attains divine consciousness, experiencing
infinite knowledge perception, power, and bliss.
 Right Faith (right vision), Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct (triple
gems of Jainism) provide the way to this realisation.
 The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of
unenlightened thoughts, speech, and action. This goal is achieved
through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple gems
of Jainism.

 A soul is called a 'victor' (in Sanskrit/Pali
language, Jina) because one has achieved
liberation by one's own efforts.
 A Jain is a follower of Jinas ("conquerors “)
 Jains follow the teachings of 24 special jinas
who are known as Tirthankars ("those who
have shown the way to salvation from the
river of births and deaths").
 Those who rediscover and preach Jain dharma
are called Tirthankara. The literal meaning
of Tirthankar is 'ford-builder'.

 Adinath (Rishabhnath)
 Ajitnath,
 Sambhavanath,
 Abhinandan,
 Sumatinath,
 Padmaprabhu,
 Suparshvanath,
 Chandraprabhu,
 Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath),
 Sheetalnath,
 Shreyansanath,
 Vasupujya,
 Vimalnath,

Anantnath,
Dharmanath,
 Shantinath,
Kunthunath,
Arhanath,
Mallinath,
Munisuvratanath,
 Naminatha,
Neminath,
Parshvanath
 and Mahavir
(Vardhaman).

1.Digambar
 In the Digambar tradition,
idols of Thirthankar are worshipped.
However
they are not
decorated with ornaments.
 The Digambar monks who have
reached the highest stages of spiritual
state do not wear any clothes.
 They carry in their hands a special kind of pot and a
broom made of fallen peacock's feathers.
 They eat food once a day with both their palms
folded in the shape of a bowl (without using a plate).

2.Shvetambar- Murtipujak (Idol
worshipper)
 The monks and nuns
of this sect wear white
dress.
 Worship and spiritual
endeavours are equal
for both men and
women.
 They worship and decorate
the images of Tirthankars.

3. Shvetambar – Sthanakvasi
 This sect emphasizes on
the study of
scriptures (Agam) and
follow the
Jain path to soul purification.
 They do not worship images and therefore
do not have temples.
 However, they build prayer halls
(sthanaks) where they carry
on their religious fasts, festivals, practices,
prayers, discourses, etc.
 Further, the ascetics of Sthanakvasis cover
their mouth with strips of clothe.

4. Shvetambar – Terapanth
Shvetambar Terapanth sect arose
from Sthanakvasis ascetic sect and
was founded in 1760 AD by
Acharya Bhikshu.
 Terapanth is also do not worship
idols and the ascetics use a piece of
white cloth to cover their mouth.
Ascetics of all Shvetambar sects
use wooden pots for seeking alms.

 Every day Jains bow and say their universal prayer,
the "Namokara Mantra," also known variously as
Navkar Mantra, Parmesthi Mantra, Panch Namaskar
Mantra.
 Jain rituals:
 Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha, Installation with five
auspicious events.
 Pratikramana, Repentance of sins.
 Samayika, Meditation
 Guru Vandana, Chaitya Vandana, and other sutras to
honour ascetics.

 Jains practice strict vegetarianism.
 Jains usually do not consume root vegetables
such as potatoes, garlic, onions, carrots, radishes,
cassava, sweet potatoes, turnips.
 Brinjal are also not consumed by some Jains
owing to the large number of seeds in the
vegetable, as a seed is a form of life.
 Strict Jains do not consume food left overnight
because of contamination by microbes etc., as the
plant needed to be killed in the process of
accessing these prior to their end of life cycle.

 Paintings which has been an accepted art since early times attained
heights of excellence in Gupta period.
 The entire surface of the caves is exquisitely painted and shows the
high standard reached in mural painting.
 The theme of the painting on the walls is mostly the life of Buddha and
Bodhisattvas and the Jataka stories.
 The paintings reflect the contemporary life of the times, dress,
ornaments, culture, weapons used, even their beliefs are portrayed with
life-like reality.
 The paintings include gods, yakshas, kinneras, gandharvas, apsaras
and human beings.

 The paintings show their intense feeling for nature and an
understanding of the various aspects of all living beings.
 The ceilings are covered with intricate designs, flowers,
plants, birds, animals, fruit and people.
 The ground for painting was prepared by paving it with a
rough layer of earth and sand mixed with vegetable fibres,
husk and grass.
 A second coat of mud mixed with fine sand and fibrous
vegetable material was applied. A final finish was given with
a thin coat of lime-wash, glue was used as a binder.
 On this prepared surface, the outlines were drawn and the
spaces were filled with the required colours; with much
attention given to shades and tones. Red, yellow, black,
ochre, blue and gypsum were mostly used.

 Buddhism is one of the oldest
religions in the world.
Gautama Buddha
(563 BC-483 BC) laid its
foundation after he gained
Enlightenment
under a
Bodhi tree at Bodhg
 The Buddha lived and taught in
the north eastern Indian
subcontinent some time
between the 6th
and 4th centuries BCE.

 He is recognized by Buddhists as an
awakened or enlightened teacher who
shared his insights to help sentient beings
end suffering (or dukkha), achieve nirvana,
and escape what is seen as a cycle of
suffering and rebirth.
 Two major branches of Buddhism are
recognized: Theravada ("The School of the
Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great
Vehicle").
 The foundations of Buddhist tradition and
practice are the Three Jewels : the Buddha,
the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha
(the community).

 According to the Theravada Tipitaka
scriptures( from Pali meaning "the baskets"),
the Buddha was born in
Lumbini in
modern-day Nepal around the year
563 BCE, and raised in
Kapilavastu.
 Siddhartha Gautama visited astrologer with his
father
suddhodana and the astrologer
said he will
become a great king or renounce
the
material world to become a holy man,
depending
on whether he saw what life was like outside

 At age 29, despite his father's efforts,
Siddhartha ventured beyond the palace
several times.
 In a series of encounters—known in Buddhist
literature as the four sights he learned of the
suffering of ordinary people, encountering an
old man, a sick man, a corpse and, finally, an
ascetic holy man, apparently content and at
peace with the world.
 These experiences prompted Gautama to
abandon royal life and take up a spiritual
quest.

 Karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") in
Buddha is the force that drives sa sāra—theṃ
cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being.
 Good, skilful deeds (Pāli: "koala")
and bad, unskilful (Pali: "akusala") actions
produce
"seeds" in the mind which come
to fruition
either in this life or in a
subsequent rebirth .
 The avoidance of unwholesome actions and
the cultivation of
positive actions is
called śīla (from Sanskrit:
"ethical conduct").

 In Buddhism, karma specifically refers to
those
actions (of body, speech, and mind)
that spring from
mental intent ("cetana")
and which bring about a
consequence (or fruit, "phala") or result ("vipāka").
 Some forms of Buddhism (for example,
Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras as a
means for cutting off previous negative karma.
The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught
that Amida Buddha has the power to destroy the
karma that would otherwise bind one in sa sāra.ṃ

 Sentient beings crave pleasure and are averse to
pain from birth to death.
 In being controlled by these attitudes, they
perpetuate the cycle of conditioned existence and
suffering (sa sāra), and produce the causes andṃ
conditions of the next rebirth after death.
 Each rebirth repeats this process in an
involuntary cycle, which Buddhists strive to end
by eradicating these causes and conditions,
applying the methods laid out by the Buddha
and subsequent Buddhists.

 The Noble Eightfold Path—the fourth of the
Buddha's Noble Truths—is the way to the
cessation of suffering (dukkha).
 It has eight
sections, each starting with the
word "samyak“
(Sanskrit, meaning "correctly",
"properly",
or "well", frequently
translated into English as "right“, and
presented in three groups known as the
three higher trainings

 Prajñā is the wisdom that purifies the
mind, allowing it to attain spiritual insight
into the true nature of all things.
 Śīla is the ethics or morality, or abstention
from unwholesome deeds.
 Samadhi is the mental discipline required
to develop mastery over one's own mind.
This is done through the practice of
various contemplative and meditative
practices.

 sthambas or Pillars with
religious emblems were put up
by pious Buddhists in honour of
Buddha or other great
Buddhists.
 Fragments of sthambas
belonging to Mauryan times and
later were found at Sanchi,
Sarnath, Amaravati and
Nagarjunkonda.

 A portion of the Ashoka Pillar, 15.25
metres high, surmounted by the famous
lion-capital and a dharma chakra above
the heads of the four lions stands
embedded near the Dharmarajika stupa at
Sarnath.
 The pillar bears the edict of Ashoka
warning the monks and nuns against
creating a schism in the monastic order.
The broken fragments of the Pillar are
now in the Museum at Sarnath.

 The lion-capital - the most magnificent piece of Mauryan
sculpture is 2.31 metres high.
 It consists of four parts - (i) a bell-shaped vase covered with
inverted lotus petals, (ii) a round abacus, (iii) four seated
lions and (iv) a crowning dharma chakra with thirty two
spokes. The four lions are beautifully sculptured.
 On the abacus are four running animals - an elephant, a
bull, a horse and a. lion with a small dharma chakra
between them.
 The dharma chakra symbolizes the dharma or law; the four
lions facing the four directions are the form of Buddha or
Sakyasimha, the four galloping animals are the four
quarters accord-ing to Buddhist books and the four smaller
dharma chakras stand for the intermediate regions and the
lotus is the symbol of creative activity. The surface of these
pillars has a mirror like finish.


 Stupas were built of stones or bricks to
commemorate important events
associated with Buddhism .
 Ashok Maurya who laid the foundation.
 The best examples of stupas are
those
constructed at Amaravati,
Sanchi,
Barhut and Gaya. "One of the
most
striking architectural remains of

The stupa built by Asoka was
damaged during the break-up of the
Maurya Empire. In the 2nd century
B.C., during the. rule of the Sungas it
as completely reconstructed.
It was also embellished with the
construction of heavily carved
gateways.

The Great stupa has a large hemispherical dome
which is flat at the top, and crowned by a triple
umbrella or Chattra on a pedestal surrounded by a
square railing or Karmika.
Buddha's relics were placed in a casket chamber in
the centre of the Dome.

 At the base of the dome is a high
circular terrace
probably meant
for parikrama or
circumambulation
and an encircling balustrade.
 At the ground level is a stone-
paved
procession
path and another stone
Balustrade and two flights of
steps
leading to the
circular terrace.

Access to it is through four
exquisitely carved gateways
or Toranas in the North, South, East and West.
 The diameter of the stupa is 36.60 metres
and its height is 16.46 metres.
 It is built of large burnt bricks and mud mortar.

 The first Torana gateway to be built is the
one at the principal entrance on the South.
 Each gateway has two square pillars.
Crowning each pillar on, all four sides are
four elephants, four lions and four dwarfs.
 The four dwarfs support a superstructure of
three architraves or carved panels one above
the other. Between these are intricately
carved elephants and riders on horseback.
 The lowest architrave is supported on
exquisitely carved bracket figures.
 The panels are decorated with finely carved
figures of men, women, yakshas, lions and
elephants.

The entire panel of the gateways is
covered with sculptured scenes from the life
of Buddha, the Jataka Tales, events of the
Buddhist times and rows of floral or lotus
motifs.
The scenes from Buddha's life show
Buddha represented by symbols - the lotus,
wheel a riderless caparisoned horse, an
umbrella held above a throne, foot prints
and the triratnas which are symbolic of
Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.

During the same period, a number
of stupas, chaityas, viharas and pillars
were constructed in Sanchi, Bodh-
Gaya, Mathura, Gandhara, Amaravati
and Nagarjunakonda.
Some of the stupas are built on a
square platform having an apsidal
shrine on either side and a pillared
hall within a quadrangular monastery.
Some stupas were wheel-shaped
having four to ten spokes and a two or
three winged vihara.

 The Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra are 31 rock-
cut cave monuments which date from the 2nd
century BC.
 The caves include paintings and sculptures
considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist
religious art, which depict the Jataka tales as
well as frescos.
 The caves were built in two phases starting
around 200 BC, with the second group of caves
built around 600 AD.

 Ajanta Caves served as an extremely important
religious centre of Central Indian empires.
 During the Sātavāhana dynasty in 2nd - 1st century BC
early Buddhist monks managed to carve huge halls in
the hard basalt rock of Deccan trap.
 Zenith of Ajanta though came in 460 - 480 AD, during
Vakataka dynasty.
 Twenty-five of the rock-cut caves of Ajanta are viharas
and are the finest of monasteries. Four of the viharas
belong to the 2nd century BC.
 Cave 1 is one of the Mahayana type consists of a
verandah, a hall, groups of cells and a sanctuary. It has
a decorated facade.

 The portico is supported by exquisitely carved pillars.
 Cave chambers were not just rough hollows -
stonecutters made whole interiors with columns,
doorways, arched windows - everything was made by
hollowing the solid rock as if it was cheese.
 Even more - up to 6 metres high columns, walls, ceilings
were decorated with amazing bas-reliefs, often the flat
walls were covered with beautiful, colourful murals.
 Basic work was done with sharp pick-axes, then the cliff
face was levelled by hammer and chisel.

 Ellora is an archaeological site, in Maharashtra built by
the Rashtrakuta rulers.
 These structures consist mostly of viharas or
monasteries: large, multi-storeyed buildings carved
into the mountain face, including living quarters,
sleeping quarters, kitchens, and other rooms.
 Some of these monastery caves have shrines including
carvings of Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints.
 In many of these caves, sculptors have endeavoured to
give the stone the look of wood.

Most famous of the Buddhist caves is cave 10, a chaitya hall or
'Vishvakarma cave', popularly known as the "Carpenter's Cave".
Beyond its multi-storeyed entry is a cathedral-like stupa hall also
known as chaitya, whose ceiling has been carved to give the
impression of wooden beams. At the heart of this cave is a 15-foot
statue of Buddha seated in a preaching pose.

At the front is a rock-cut court, which is entered through a flight
of steps.
 On either side are pillared proticos with chambers in their back
walls.
The pillared verandah of the chaitya has a small shrine at either
end and a single cell in the far end of the back wall.
The corridor columns have massive squarish shafts and ghata-
pallava (vase and foliage) capitals.
The main hall is apsidal on plan and is divided in to a central
nave and side aisles by 28 octagonal columns with plain bracket
capitals.
 In the apsidal end of the chaitya hall is a stupa on the face of
which a colossal 3.30 m high seated Buddha in vyakhya mudra
(teaching posture) is carved. A large Bodhi tree is carved at the
back.
 The hall has a vaulted roof in which ribs have been carved in
the rock imitating the wooden ones.

 It originally means a secluded place in which to walk, or
referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by wandering
monks.
 These dwellings were simple wooden constructions or
thatched bamboo huts.
 It was considered an act of merit not only to feed a monk
but also to shelter him, So these Viharas were created.
 They have a hall meant for congregational prayer with a
running verandah on three sides or an open courtyard
surrounded by a row of cells and a pillared verandah in
front.
 These monastic buildings built of bricks were self-
contained units and had a Chaitya hall or Chaitya mandir
attached to a stupa - the chief object of worship.

 There are four main areas of the Takht Bahi
complex:
a. The "Stupa Court", a cluster of
stupas located in a central courtyard.
b. The monastic chambers, consisting of
individual cells arranged around a
courtyard, assembly halls, and a dining
area.
c. A temple complex, consisting of
stupas and similar to the Stupa Court, but
of later construction.

 It has a pillared portico in front leading
into a courtyard with the walls on either
side heavily sculptured with figures.
 The interior pillars are well decorated
with cushion shaped capitals. The corbel
brackets are richly sculptured.
 The drum of the central stupa is elongated
and carved. Projecting from the drum is an
arched nasika or niche with the figure of a
standing Buddha carved in it.

 The rounded dome of the stupa is surmounted
by a harmika and three tiers of chatras,
diminishing in size and supported by figures on
four sides.
 On top of the chatras and touching the ceiling is
another small stupa with a miniature harmika.
The facade of the cave is exqui-sitely carved.
 The chaitya-window has figures of yakshas and
richly carved, friezes on either side. Two figures
of standing Buddha flank the entrance. The walls
of the hall and the ceiling of the aisles is richly
painted with figures of Buddha, floral
motifs, animals and birds.

 Archaeologists have divided the history of the complex at Takti
Bhai into four periods, beginning in the 1st Century BCE.
 This first era continued until the 2nd Century CE, and is
associated with the Kushan king Kanishka, as well as early
Parthian and later Kushana king.
 The second construction period, which included the creation of
the Stupa Court and assembly hall, took place during the 3rd and
4th Centuries CE.
 A third construction period, associated with the later Kushan
dynasty and the Kidara Kushana rulers, occurred during the 4th
and 5th centuries.
 The final construction period, which saw the creation of the so-
called Tantric complex, took place in the 6th and 7th Centuries
CE, and was overseen by invading Hun rulers.

 The double storied cave of Rani Gumpha is the most
impressive of all the caves.
 Also known as Queen Cave, the walls and doorway
of Rani Gumpha cave are extensively decorated with
excellent carvings.
 Most of the carvings portray the victory of their
native kings over the enemies.

Courtyard of Rani Gumpha Caves

Sunflower Carving at the Rani Gumpha Cave

 Chaitya grihas or halls of worship were built all over
the country either of brick or excavated from rocks.
 Ruins of a large number of structural Buddhist
chaitya grihas are found in the eastern districts of
Andhra Pradesh, in valleys, near rivers and lakes.
 The ruins located in the districts of Srikakulam at
Salihundam, of Visahkapatnam at Kotturu, of West
Godavari at Guntapalli, of Krishna at Vijayawada, of
Guntur at Nagajunakonda and Amaravati belong to
the 3rd century BC and later.
 The largest brick chaitya hall was excavated at
Guntapalli.a

 Some of the chaityas show that wood had been
used in the roofing and entrance arches.
 The chaitya at Bhaja is a long hall 16.75 metres
long and 8 metres broad with an apse at the end.
 The hall is divided into a central nave and an aisle
on either side flanked by two rows of pillars. The
roof is vaulted.
 The rock-cut stupa in the apse is crowned by a
wooden harmika.
 The chaitya has a large arched torana or entrance
with an arched portico.

 the chaitya has a double-storeyed facade and has three
doorways in the lower part.
 It has an upper gallery over which there is the usual arch.
 The walls of the vestibule to the chaitya hall are decorated
with sculptured figures of couples.
 The pillars separating the central nave from the aisles have a
pot base, an octagonal shaft, inverted lotus capital with an
abacus.
 The abacus has exquisitely carved pairs of elephants
kneeling down, each with a couple in front and caparisoned
horses with riders on them.
 The stupa at the apse end is tall and cylindrical with two tiers
of railings around the drum.
 It is crowned by the original wooden chhatra. This is the
most beautiful of the chaityas.

 the chaityas have a vaulted ceiling with a
huge horse-shoe shaped window or chaitya
window over the doorway.
 They are large halls divided into three, parts
- the central nave, apse and aisles on either
side separated by a row of columns.
 The side aisles continue behind the apse for
circumambulation.
 At the centre of the apse is a rock stupa with
large figure of Buddha, sitting or standing

 Karla Caves are a complex of ancient Buddhist India rock-cut
architecture cave shrines developed over two periods - from 2nd
century B.C.
 Even though the caves were constructed over a period of time and
the oldest one is believed to date back to 160 BC.
 Located in Karli near Lonavala, Maharashtra, the caves are on a
major ancient trade route, running eastward from the Arabian Sea
into the Deccan.
 Buddhism, having become identified with commerce and
manufacturing through their early association with traders,
tended to locate their monastic establishes in natural areas close to
major trade routes so as to provide lodging houses for travelling
traders.

 This complex of well-preserved Buddhist caves is built on
the difficult terrain of a rocky hillside. The large Karla caves
were excavated by hewing out the rock. Great windows light
the interiors.
 The main cave has a magnificent Chaitya with huge pillars
and intricately carved relief's dating back to the 1st century
B.C.
 There are well carved sculptures of both males and females ,
animals.
 A feature of these caves is their arched entrances and vaulted
interiors.
 The outside facade has intricate details carved to imitate
finished wood. The central motif is a large horseshoe arch.
There is a lion column in front, with a closed stone facade
and torana in between.

 Hinayana rock architecture reaches the peak of excellence
in the splendid chaitya at Karle.
 The chaitya has a double-storeyed facade and has three
doorways in the lower part.
 It has an upper gallery over which there is the usual arch.
The walls of the vestibule to the chaitya hall are decorated
with sculptured figures of couples.
 The pillars separating the central nave from the aisles have
a pot base, an octagonal shaft, inverted lotus capital with an
abacus.
 The abacus has exquisitely carved pairs of elephants
kneeling down, each with a couple in front and caparisoned
horses with riders on them.
 The stupa at the apse end is tall and cylindrical with two
tiers of railings around the drum. It is crowned by the
original wooden chhatra. This is the most beautiful of the
chaityas.

 The chaityas have a vaulted ceiling with a
huge horse-shoe shaped window or chaitya
window over the doorway.
 They are large halls divided into three,
parts - the central nave, apse and aisles on
either side separated by a row of columns.
 After finishing the verandah, they
excavated the interior. Tools used were the
pick-axe, chisel and hammer.

Jainism

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