This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It discusses the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum and the types of molecular vibrations that cause infrared absorptions. Specific functional groups like alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters and amines are described in terms of their characteristic infrared absorption frequencies. Example spectra are shown and problems are provided to help identify unknown structures based on their infrared spectra.
An IR spectrum is a plot of percent transmittance (or absorbance) against wavenumber (frequency or wavelength). The interpretation of IR Spectra helps in the characterization of the unknown organic compound.
This is a document presentation of identification of major classes of organic compounds using IR spectroscopy. This is based on the book Wiley: Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, by Robert Silverstein, 8th Edition .
Infrared spectroscopy deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. Infrared Spectroscopy is an analysis of infrared light interacting with a molecule.
The IR spectroscopy can be analyzed in three ways: by measuring absorption, emission, and reflection. The major use of this technique is in organic and inorganic chemistry to determine functional groups of molecules. A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light absorbed on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis.
Infrared spectrum / infrared frequency and hydrocarbonsRavish Yadav
The all the content in this profile is completed by the teachers, students as well as other health care peoples.
thank you, all the respected peoples, for giving the information to complete this presentation.
this information is free to use by anyone.
An IR spectrum is a plot of percent transmittance (or absorbance) against wavenumber (frequency or wavelength). The interpretation of IR Spectra helps in the characterization of the unknown organic compound.
This is a document presentation of identification of major classes of organic compounds using IR spectroscopy. This is based on the book Wiley: Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, by Robert Silverstein, 8th Edition .
Infrared spectroscopy deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. Infrared Spectroscopy is an analysis of infrared light interacting with a molecule.
The IR spectroscopy can be analyzed in three ways: by measuring absorption, emission, and reflection. The major use of this technique is in organic and inorganic chemistry to determine functional groups of molecules. A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light absorbed on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis.
Infrared spectrum / infrared frequency and hydrocarbonsRavish Yadav
The all the content in this profile is completed by the teachers, students as well as other health care peoples.
thank you, all the respected peoples, for giving the information to complete this presentation.
this information is free to use by anyone.
Fundamentals and Interpretation of Organic Compounds. Infra Red Spectroscopy.THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, INFRA RED REGIONS. MOLECULAR VIBRATIONS. HOOKE’S LAW. Fermi Resonance. Typical IR Absorption Regions. C-H STRETCHING VIBRATIONS.The O-H stretching region, Effect of Hydrogen-Bondingon O-H Stretching, The N-H stretching region. RESONANCE EFFECTS and HYDROGEN BONDING. HOW THESE FACTORS AFFECT C=O FREQUENCY. CONFIRMATION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP in IR.CONJUGATION AND RING SIZE EFFECTS in IR, Finger print region in IR.
IR spectroscopy which is short for infrared spectroscopy deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e. light having a longer wavelength and a lower frequency than visible light. Infrared Spectroscopy generally refers to the analysis of the interaction of a molecule with infrared light. The IR spectroscopy concept can generally be analyzed in three ways by measuring reflection, emission, and absorption. The major use of infrared spectroscopy is to determine the functional groups of molecules, relevant to both organic and inorganic chemistry. Ganga Shy Meena "Applications of Infra-Red Spectroscopy" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-4 , June 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50139.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/chemistry/other/50139/applications-of-infrared-spectroscopy/ganga-shy-meena
A breif on how to analyse ir spectra, basic and depth,
an use full data for msc, bsc, and people in reasearch field, an usefull information for net exam,
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
BLOOD AND BLOOD COMPONENT- introduction to blood physiology
IR
1. INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
Absorptions in infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum
(hence the name)
Absorptions due to stretching and bending of covalent bonds in
molecules
Visible region – 400 to 800 nm
Visible wavelengths typically expressed in nanometers
(1 nm = 1 x 10-9
m)
Infrared region – wavelengths longer than visible
Infrared wavelengths typically expressed in micrometers
(1 µm = 1 x 10-6
m)
Typical infrared spectrum covers between 2.5 µm to 25 µm (2500
nm to 25000 nm)
Energy is inversely related to wavelength, so infrared light has less
energy than visible light
Typical units in infrared spectroscopy are wavenumbers (ν) - the
reciprocal of the wavelength (in centimeters)
2.5 µm = 2.5 x 10-4
cm =4000 cm-1
25 µm = 2.5 x 10-3
cm =400 cm-1
Thus your typical IR spectrum runs from 4000 to 400 cm-1
Wavenumber is directly related to energy; the higher the energy of
the absorption
1
2. Types of IR Absorptions
IR absorption occurs from the stretching and bending of the
covalent bonds in molecules
To be accompanied by IR absorption a stretch or bend must change
the dipole moment of the molecule
Molecules with symmetric bonds such as N2, O2, or F2 do not
absorb in the infrared since bond stretching does not change
the dipole moment of the molecule
The two primary modes of vibration are stretching and bending
Stretching modes are typically of higher energy than bending
modes
Stretching modes are often divided into two a symmetric and
asymmetric stretch; the asymmetric stretch is usually of
higher energy
2
3. The energy of the stretch decreases as the mass of the atoms is
increased
C-H 3000 cm-1
C-C 1200 cm-1
C-O 1100 cm-1
C-Cl 750 cm-1
C-I 500 cm-1
The energy of the stretch is related to the hybridization in the order
sp > sp2
> sp3
C-H sp 3300 cm-1
C-H sp2
3100 cm-1
C-H sp3
2900 cm-1
Dispersive IR Spectrometers
Beam from an IR source is split into two halves using a mirror
One beam is passed through a reference cell; the other is passed
through a sample cell
The two beams are alternately passed to the diffraction grating
using a beam chopper
Absorption of radiation is detected by comparing the two signals
Light is dispersed (spread into constituent wavelengths) by a
grating much as it would by be by a prism
The grating is slowly rotated, which changes the angle if
diffraction and which wavelengths are passed to the detector
3
4. Spectrum recorded in the frequency domain
FTIR Spectrometers
Most modern IR spectrometers are of this type
Spectrum obtained as a function of time rather than frequency; a
Fourier transform is used to convert from time domain to
frequency domain
Most are single-beam spectrometers
A background scan is first performed, then scan of the
sample, and the background scan is detected from the sample
scan by computer
4
5. Sample Preparation for IR Work
Three major methods of sample preparation
1. Sample is mixed with a mulling agent such mineral oil and
pressed between plates made of sodium chloride
Sodium chloride is used because it has no IR absorptions; glass
or plastic plates would have IR absorptions of their own
Sodium chloride plates are good from 4000 to 650 cm-1
; below
650 cm-1
they begin to absorb
Potassium bromide plates can be used in place of sodium
chloride and are transparent to 400 cm-1
, but they are more
expensive.
Downside of this method is absorptions due to the mineral oil
2. Sample is mixed with solid potassium bromide and pressed into
a pellet under high pressure
No absorptions from mulling agent
Only works for solids
3. Sample is dissolved in carbon tetrachloride and pressed between
salt plates
Downside of this method is absorptions due to the CCl4
5
6. Absorptions of Alkanes
C-H stretch occurs at 3000 – 2840 cm-1
CH2 bending modes at 1465 cm-1
CH3 bending absorption at 1375 cm-1
CH2 (four or more CH2 groups) rocking at 720 cm-1
Note lack of long-chain bend and CH3 bend in above spectrum
6
7. Absorptions in Alkenes
C-H stretch occurs in region of 3095 – 3010 cm-1
(note higher wavenumber relative to alkanes)
C=C stretch occurs in region of 1670 – 1640 cm-1
Can be used to determine type of substitution:
Symmetrically substituted does not absorb at all
A cis isomer absorbs more strongly than a trans isomer
(cis is less symmetrical than trans)
Simple monosubstituted absorbs at 1640 cm-1
Simple 1,1-disubstituted absorbs at 1650 cm-1
C-H out of plane bending (oop) absorbs at 1000 – 650 cm-1
Often very strong absorptions
Can be used to determine type of substitution:
Monosubstituted gives two peaks near 990 and 910 cm-1
1,2-disubstituted (cis) gives one strong band near 700 cm-1
1,2-disubstitued (trans) gives on band near 970 cm-1
1,1-disubstituted gives one strong band near 890 cm-1
A trisubstituted double bond absorbs near 815 cm-1
A tetrasubstituted double bond does not absorb at all
7
8. A monosubstituted alkene gives two strong peaks near 990 and 910
cm-1
A cis 1,2-disibstiuted alkene gives one strong band near 700 cm-1
Note that the C=C stretch is much less intense than for the
monosubstituted example
8
9. The strength of the C=C stretch can serve to differentiate between
cis and trans isomers
The cis isomer – more intense C=C stretch
Note the single large peak at 700 cm-1
(indicates cis isomer)
The trans isomer – less intense C=C stretch
Note the band near 970 cm–1
(indicates trans isomer)
9
10. Absorptions in Alkynes
C-H stretching frequency is approximately 3300 cm-1
(still higher than for alkanes or alkenes)
C-C stretch occurs at approximately 2150 cm-1
(but not observed if alkyne is symmetric)
An asymmetric alkyne
A asymmetric alkyne (no C-C stretch)
10
11. Example Problem 1
Shown below are spectra for cis and trans 3-hexen-1-ol. Assign a
structure to each.
Solution
11
12. Example Problem 2
Which of the following structures matches the spectrum shown
below?
Solution
12
14. Absorptions in Aromatic Compounds
C-H stretch occurs between 3050 and 3010 cm-1
C-H out-of-plane bending occurs at 900 – 690 cm-1
(useful for determining type of ring substitution)
C=C stretching often occurs in pairs at 1600 cm-1 and 1475 cm-1
Overtone and combination bands occur between 2000 and 1667
cm-1
Monosubstituted rings give strong absorptions at 690 cm-1
and 750
cm-1
(second may be masked by hydrocarbon solvent)
14
15. Ortho substituted rings give one strong band at 750 cm-1
Meta substituted rings gives bands at 690 cm-1
, 780 cm-1
, and
sometimes a third band of medium intensity at 880 cm-1
Para substituted rings give one band from 800 to 850 cm-1
15
16. Alcohols and Phenols
Hydrogen-bonded O-H stretching occurs as a very broad and
intense peak at 3400-3300 cm-1
Free O-H stretching (only observed when dilute) occurs at
3600 – 3650 cm-1
C-O-H bending - a broad and weak peak at 1550-1220 cm-1
C-O stretching occurs in range 1260 – 1000 cm-1
The position of the C-O stretch can be used to determine the type
of alcohol
Phenols – 1220 cm-1
Tertiary alcohols – 1150 cm-1
Secondary alcohols – 1100 cm-1
Primary alcohols – 1050 cm-1
16
18. Ethers
C-O stretch most important, occurs at 1300-1000 cm-1
In dialkyl ethers occurs as a strong band at 1120 cm-1
Aryl alkyl ethers give two peaks; asymmetric C-O-C stretch near
1250 cm-1 and a symmetric stretch near 1040 cm-1
Vinyl alkyl ethers give two peaks, a strong asymmetric stretch at
1220 cm-1 and a weak symmetric stretch near 850 cm-1
C-O stretches also occur in alcohols and esters, so look for O-H or
C=O stretches before concluding a compound is an ether
18
19. Aldehydes
Contains a C=O stretch at:
1740 – 1725 cm-1
for normal aliphatic aldehyde
1700 – 1680 cm-1
for conjugation with double bond
1700 – 1660 cm-1
for conjugation with phenyl group
Conjugation decreases the C-O bond order and therefore decreases
the stretching frequency
The (CO)-H stretch occurs as a pair of weak bands at 2860 – 2800
cm-1
and 2760 – 2700 cm-1
; the higher-frequency bands are often
masked by alkane C-H absorptions
Above band can help to differentiate between aldehydes and
ketones as these both have a carbonyl group
19
21. Ketones
Contains a C=O stretch at:
1720 – 1708 cm-1
for normal aliphatic aldehyde
(slightly lower frequency than for aldehydes)
1700 – 1675 cm-1
for conjugation with double bond
1700 – 1680 cm-1
for conjugation with one phenyl group
1670 – 1600 cm-1
for conjugation with two phenyl groups
~ 1716 cm-1
for 1,2 diketones (not conjugated)
~ 1680 cm-1
for 1,2 diketones (conjugated)
21
22. Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids occur as hydrogen-bonded dimers unless in dilute
solution
C=0 stretch occurs in the following regions:
1730 – 1700 cm-1
for simple aliphatic acids in dimeric form
Occurs at lower frequencies if conjugated with an alkene or
aromatic
O-H stretch occurs as a very broad peak at 3400 to 2400 cm-1
, may
partially obscure C-H stretching bands
C-O stretch of medium intensity observed at 1320 –1210 cm-1
22
23. Esters
C=O stretch occurs at:
1750 – 1735 cm-1
for normal aliphatic esters
(example – ethyl butyrate, 1738 cm-1
)
1740 – 1750 cm-1
if carbonyl carbon conjugated with an alkene
(example – methyl methacrylate, 1725 cm-1
)
1740 – 1715 cm-1
if carbonyl carbon conjugated with aromatic
(example – methyl benzoate, 1724 cm-1
)
1765 – 1762 cm-1
if oxygen atom conjugated with alkene or
aromatic (note that this is a shift to higher frequency)
(example – phenyl acetate, 1765 cm-1
)
(example – vinyl acetate, 1762 cm-1)
The C-O stretch occurs as two bands, one stronger and broader
than the other, at 1300 – 1000 cm-1
Ethyl butryate – simple aliphatic ester
23
24. Vinyl acetate – alkene group adjacent to C=O group
Vinyl acetate – oxygen atom conjugated with alkene
Methyl benzoate – aromatic group adjacent to C=O group
24
25. Amines
N-H stretch occurs at 3500 –3300 cm-1
Primary amines – two bands
Secondary amines – one band; weak for aliphatic amines but
stronger for aromatic
Tertiary amines have no absorption in this region (no N-H
bonds)
N-H bending
Broad band at 1640 – 1560 cm-1
for primary amine
Secondary amines absorb at 1500 cm-1
N-H out of plane bending occurs at 800 cm-1
C-N stretching occurs at 1350 – 1000 cm-1
Butylamine – primary amine
25