This document discusses various phases and theories related to teaching and learning. It describes Philip Jackson's three phases of teaching: pre-active, interactive, and post-active. It also discusses Robert Glaser's basic model of teaching which divides the teaching process into four components: instructional objectives, entering behavior, instructional procedures, and performance assessment. Additionally, it covers learning theories such as behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism as well as maxims of teaching including known to unknown, simple to complex, and psychological to logical.

1. INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING AND
LEARNING
Dr SAJEENA S.

2. PHASES OF TEACHING
•
Teaching is a process which
occurs in different stages.
Philip Jackson divided
teaching operation into three
phases and they are Pre-
active, Interactive and post-
active phase.

3. Pre-active Phase
It is the preparation before actual teaching begins. Before
entering the classroom, teacher must be well prepared with her
tools/equipment. Teacher must be ready with her planning and
how to implement them in the teaching process. This phase
includes full proof preparation and scheduling before
commencing any action in class.
Steps at this stage:
Fix the aims and objectives- Before beginning actual teaching the
instructor must be aware of the goals to be achieved at the end
of the process. The aims are fixed keeping in mind the level
(interest, capability, aptitude, psychology, background etc.) of
learners, content, and expectations (of teacher, learner & society)
etc.

4. Sequential arrangement of content- After fixing the goals,
the next level of analyzing the content target is to analyze
deeply. The analysis of the content should be done according
to the levels of the learners. During this process it should be
fragmented into small, simple pieces which learner can
understand. But these fragments must be organized
sequentially and they must have cohesion between them.
This will guide the teacher to proceed logically in the
classroom.
Since the aims are clear and matter is organized, the teacher
must prepare strategies to accompany the teaching and make it
more interesting and creative. Efforts should be made to make
learning experience of learner as effective as possible. These
strategies may include the teaching style, model of teaching,
method and techniques for transfer of learning. The teacher has
to decide which method should be used through which any
particular content should be taught effectively.

5. Interactive Phase
According to Jackson, “In the interactive stage, the teacher provides
pupils verbal stimulation of various kinds, makes explanation, asks
questions, listens to learner’s response, provide guidance etc. At this
stage the teacher is now in the classroom with proper equipment.
Now actual teaching-learning process is introduced.
Interactive process occurs between teacher and learners wherein
teacher presents new content by linking it with previous knowledge of
learners. Also, the learners try to absorb the experiences of classroom
teaching. Cross questioning may occur many a times in this process
and repetition of some content may be requested by the learners.
Teacher’s activity at this level is based on the objectives set and
planning done before coming to the class.

6. The main activities performed at this phase are
First of all, the teacher must have a quick glance and
overview of the class.
An attempt should be made to establish a connection with
the learners so that they feel a sense of familiarity.
A quick review of the level of class, their interest, aptitude
and ability should be done by asking questions based on
the previous knowledge.
After judging them, teacher must utilize proper method
and techniques to present the content before the learners.

7. • Communication process must be a two-
way process so that it is an interactive
class. It will help the teacher understand
whether learners are getting the points as
the teacher has presented. The
presentation needs to be a two-way
communication therefore when good
response from the learner comes teacher
must give reinforcement generously. This
will motivate the whole class to put in
more effort to analyze and respond.

8. Post-Active
Phase
• This phase can be termed as winding up of
the teaching process or in other words it is
the beginning of new, better and modified
teaching process of the same content. It
begins as soon as the teaching process comes
to an end. This phase is an acid test for a
teacher because evaluation begins to check
how far the teacher has been successful in
achieving the objectives and bringing out the
desired behavioural changes in the learners.
Also, teacher is able to decide what
technique, tool and strategy are beneficial in
the classroom teaching.

10. Glaser’s
Basic Model
of Teaching
• Robert Glaser (1962) has developed a
stripped-down teaching model which, with
modifications, is the basic teaching model.
The basic teaching model divides the
teaching process into four components or
parts. It will be useful in several ways. This
model explains the relationship between
teaching and learning. It provides a simple
and adequate conceptualization of the
teaching process.

11.  It is called Basic teaching model because it presents a very basic analysis of
the process of teaching in terms of the elements of teaching.
 This model applies to all levels of education i.e., elementary, secondary, higher
etc. It is also applied to subject matter related to any subject as a teacher can
use this model for teaching them.
 Teaching for any length of time (40 minutes, 1 hour, weeks etc.) is possible
using this model.

12. Assumptions
of Basic
Teaching
Model
It is developed on the assumption that “every
lesson assumes some knowledge on the part of
the learner”
Through instructional procedure, the teacher
guides the learner from entry behaviour to
terminal behaviour.
It explains the whole teaching learning process
by dividing it into four basic components
• Instructional objectives
• Entering behaviour
• Instructional procedures
• Performance assessment

13. Components
of basic
training
model
Step 1: Instructional objectives
The instructional objective is those
objectives that the student should attain
upon completion of a unit of instruction.
• These objectives may be stated in general,
specific or in behavioural terms.
• For instruction to be effective and systematic, the
instructional objectives are stated in behavioural
terms.

14. Step 2:
Entering
behaviour
Every learner has initial behaviour before he
enters teaching-learning process.
It is essential to detect the entering behaviour of
the learner before giving instructions.
It is just like previous knowledge of a subject or
the performance of the learner in terms of
educational abilities.
This step is important because only after this step
the teacher can take the students from entry
behaviour to terminal behaviour.

15. Step: 3
Instructional
procedures
 It is the most active part of the teaching
process.
 It indicates the method, procedure,
and strategies of teaching which depends on
objectives and entry behaviour of the
learner.
 This component depends on two previous
components.

16. Step: 4
Performance
assessments
Here ultimate behaviour of the learner is tested so that feedback may
be given.
If the need arises objectives may be modified, the instructional
procedure may be improved, and assessment of performance is made
again.
Evaluation techniques used for the purpose of assessment tests are
observation, interview, rating scale etc.
All four basic components are interrelated with one another. They
interact and influence each other.
If the performance assessment indicates that the learners have not
been able to achieve the objectives set for them, necessary changes
are brought about in any one or all proceeding components of this
model so that the goals of instruction are attained.

18. Maxims of
Teaching
• Maxim means- a short statement of a general
truth, principle, or rule for behaviour.
Maxims of Teaching are the universally
accepted facts found out by the teacher on the
basis of experience. They are of universal
significance and are trustworthy. The
knowledge of different maxims helps the
teacher to proceed systematically.

19. Known to Known to Unknown
This maxim is based on the
assumption that the student
knows something.
Previous knowledge of a
particular subject or topic
may help to collect new
information and explore the
unknown.
It is said that old knowledge
serves as a hook on which
the new one can be hung.
So, while teaching we should
proceed from known and go
towards unknown.
For example, while teaching
any lesson, the teacher can
link the previous
experiences of the child with
the new lesson that is to be
taught.

20. Simple to
Complex
• In the process of teaching-learning, the
teacher should see that simple things are
presented first to the students so that way
they will start taking interest.
• Once they become interested, gradually
complex type of things can also be learnt by
them. By learning simple things, they feel
encouraged and they gain confidence.
• On this basis, they become further receptive
to the complex matter. On the other hand, if
complex types of things are presented to the
learner first, he become, upset, feels bored
and finds himself in a challenging situation.
• So, start from simple items and gradually
more difficult items of learning may be
presented to the students. It will smoothen
teaching being done by the teacher and make
learning convenient and interesting for the
students.

21. • Analysis to Synthesis: Analysis
means breaking a problem into its
convenient parts while synthesis
means grouping of these separated
parts into one complete whole. A
complex problem can be made
simple and easy by dividing into
different parts. “Analysis is the
approach for understanding and
synthesis is for fixation.”

22. • Particular to General: While teaching, the teacher
should first of all take particular statements and then
on the basis of those particular cases, generalization
should be made.
• Generalized facts, principles, concepts and
phenomena are quite abstract in nature and should
not be presented in the beginning of a teaching.
• One cannot generalize without facing or acquainting
oneself with the particular instances leading to the
generalization of the fact or behaviour.
• Therefore, a teacher should always begin with the
learning or experiencing of the particular cases, facts
or instances and then persuade his students to
generalize or conclude.

23. Empirical to Rational
• In a teaching-learning process, it is always safe to begin with what we see, feel and experience than what we
agree, generalize or explain. The former approach is empirical while the latter is rational.
• Development of the rational point of view is a goal, a result of a process of empirical findings. The rational
thinking is not the product of empty ideas or lofty ideals having no naked truth or concrete happenings.
• A teacher has to place facts, evidences, direct or indirect experiences, examples and instances full of
objectivity and validity to arrive at some conclusion or develop a rational point of view in understanding the
nature and concepts of the objects, people, events and phenomena.
• Therefore, in good teaching one should always lead the student from empirical to rational goals. Empirical is
less general statements whereas rational is more general statements. So, the safe approach in teaching is that
we should proceed from empirical to rational. It is a journey from less mental maturity to more mental
maturity.

24. Induction to Deduction
Induction is the way of proving a thing or statement if it is true for a particular
case, and then it should be true for the next similar case and so on. While
employing it in teaching, a teacher is required to place particular instances. On
the basis of similarities of properties and repetition of a phenomenon, the
students are thus made to generalize a concept, principle or rule.
On the other hand, deduction is the net result of induction. Here the beginning is
made by placing a generalized fact, principle, formula or rule before the students
and then they are asked to verify the truth of the generalization by applying it in
particular instances or examples.

25. Psychological
to Logical
• While teaching, the teacher should first keep
in mind the interest, aptitudes, capacities,
development level etc. of the children during
selection of subject matter and then on to its
logical arrangement. Psychological point of
view emphasizes the importance of
psychological principles of learning and
teaching in the process of education. The
curriculum, teaching strategies, aid materials
and teaching-learning environment, all are set
in view of the psychology of the child and
teaching-learning.

26. Actual to
Representative

27. Near to Afar
• Every child is able to learn well in the surroundings to which he belongs. So,
the child should be acquainted fully with his immediate environment.
Gradually he may be taught about those things which are far from his
immediate environment. Thus, the child should be taught the home, followed
by the street, the bazaar, the school and then the distant environment of the
city to which he belongs. In the same way, acquaintance with the city should
lead to acquaintance with the Tehsil, the District, the Division, the Stale and
then the Country as a whole. This type of teaching will be incremental and
will be step by step learning.

28. Whole to
Part
• In teaching, the teacher should try to acquaint the child with
the whole lesson first and then the different portions of it may
be analyzed and studied intensively. This principle holds good
while teaching a thing to the small children. Whole is always
not only greater than the parts but also more understandable,
motivating and effective. Therefore, beginning should always
be made with the whole and then step-by-step its various parts
or constituents should be presented before the students.

29. Definite to
Indefinite
• In teaching, definite things should be taught
first because the learner can easily have faith
in them. Then afterwards he should give the
knowledge of indefinite things.

30. Learning Theories
Learning theories are
conceptual frameworks
describing how information is
absorbed, processed and
retained during learning.
Cognitive, emotional, and
environmental influences, as
well as prior experience, all play
a part in how understanding, or
a world view, is acquired or
changed and knowledge and
skills retained.

31. Behaviourists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a
system of rewards and targets in education.
Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as
a change in behaviour is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than
their environment and in particular the complexities of human memory.
Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies
to a large extent on what he already knows and understands, and the acquisition
of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction.

32. Behaviourism
• Behaviourism was found out by J. B. Watson
• Behaviourism is a philosophy of learning that only focuses on objectively observable
behaviours and discounts mental activities. Experiments by behaviourists identify
conditioning as a universal learning process.
• There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern:
Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular
example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food.
Essentially, animals and people are biologically "wired" so that a certain stimulus will
produce a specific response.
• Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced.

33. • Behaviourism defines learning as the acquisition of a new behaviour or
change in behaviour.
• According to the behaviour theory the learning process begins with some
stimulus from the environment and then the learner reacts with some type of
response. The responses are so arranged to follow the desired behaviour.
• The new behavioural can be repeated so it becomes automatic. Thus,
associations between stimuli and responses lead to a change in behaviour.

34. • Unfortunately, behaviourism does not learn for creative thinking or problem solving. The
students only recall some basic facts, automatic responses or performing tasks and do not
take the initiative to change or improve things. Some examples of behaviourist learning
theory are rote work, repetitive practice, participation or bonus points, verbal
reinforcement, and so on.
• Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system. If a reward or reinforcement
follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the
future.
• How Behaviourism impacts learning:
• • Positive and negative reinforcement techniques of Behaviourism can be very effective.
• • Teachers use Behaviourism when they reward or punish student behaviours.

35. Cognitivism
• Jean Piaget authored a theory based on
the idea that a developing child builds
cognitive structures, mental "maps", for
understanding and responding to
physical experiences within their
environment. Piaget proposed that a
child's cognitive structure increases in
sophistication with development,
moving from a few innate reflexes such
as crying and sucking to highly complex
mental activities.

36. Cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of students’
learning processes and address the issues of how information is
received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning
is concerned not so much with what learners do but with what
they know and how they come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b).
Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that
entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The
learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning
process.
Cognitivism, like behaviourism, emphasizes the role that
environmental conditions play in facilitating learning.
Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples
and matched non-examples are all considered to be
instrumental in guiding student learning. Similarly, emphasis is
placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback. Up to
this point, little difference can be detected between these two
theories. However, the “active” nature of the learner is
perceived quite differently.

37. The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response and
acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986).
Cognitive theories contend that environmental “cues” and instructional components alone cannot account
for all the learning that results from an instructional situation.
Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and
retrieve information.
Learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in the learning process
(Winne, 1985).
The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use
appropriate learning strategies

38. How Piaget's theory impacts
learning:
• • Curriculum - Educators must plan a
developmentally appropriate curriculum
that enhances their students' logical and
conceptual growth.
• • Instruction - Teachers must emphasize
the critical role that experiences, or
interactions with the surrounding
environment, play in student learning. For
example, instructors have to consider the
role that fundamental concepts, such as
the permanence of objects, play in
establishing cognitive structures.

39. Constructivism
• Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded
on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences
we construct our own understanding of the world we
live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and
"mental models," which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the
process of adjusting our mental models to
accommodate new experiences.

40. The guiding
principles of
Constructivism:
• Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start
with the issues around which students are actively trying to
construct meaning.
• Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts and
parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore,
the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated
facts.
• In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models
that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions
they make to support those models. The purpose of learning is
for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just
memorize the "right" answers and repeat someone else's
meaning.
• Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only
valuable way to measure learning is to make assessment part of
the learning process, ensuring it provides students with
information on the quality of their learning.

41. How Constructivism impacts learning:
• Curriculum - Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it
promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on
problem solving.
• Instruction - Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between
facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to
student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret and predict information. Teachers
also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.
• Assessment - Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead,
assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their
own progress.

42. • Constructivism is based on the fact that learner constructs his own
vision of the world, based on his individual experiences and
knowledge. Since the learning process depends on how the individual
interprets the meaning of his perceptions, experiences and knowledge,
the learning is unique and different for each person. Thus, according to
constructivist theorists, the learning is a process where individuals
construct new ideas or concepts based on their prior knowledge and/or
experience.

44. Interdependence
of Teaching and
Learning
Teaching-learning is a process through which the
teacher, the learner, the curriculum and other variables
are organized in a systematic manner in order to attain
the pre-set goals.
Learning and teaching are the foundations of education
and training.
Both learning and teaching are extremely important and
generally go together.
Learning often occurs without teacher in situations
where students learn by experience or by their own
efforts.

45.  Teaching is not a goal in itself. The purpose of
teaching is to bring about learning.
 Both teaching & learning may be formal or informal.
 Both are goal oriented.
 Good teaching results in good learning.
 One can observe teaching but not learning.
 Both teaching and learning require skills, creativity,
intelligence and operate on definite principles.
 Good teaching requires good communication skill &
good learning requires good listening skills.

46.  Only good learners become good teachers.
 Teaching is an intentional activity- "teaching is undertaking certain activities the intention of which is
to induce learning”.
 A teacher teaches with an anticipation that certain activities will result in learning, but not guarantee
it.
 Teaching is the process of carrying out those activities that experience has shown to be effective in
getting students to learn.
 Teacher does not control the entire learning process. There are many other factors which determine
whether students learn various subjects or not, such as future career goals, parental or peer influence,
and how they feel about the teachers.
 Students have to want to learn. They must be motivated one way or another. Teacher cannot teach
those who are unwilling to learn.

47.  Teaching methodologies must be varied by teachers to
accommodate the different individual learning styles of
student. There is no one-size-fits-all teaching method.
Learning style indicates teaching style.
 Teaching performance is generally measured by gains in
student learning. Learning is also not measurable.
 The ultimate goal of teaching is to enable learner to teach
themselves, in order to become life-long learner.
 Teaching should be student and learning centred.
 Teachers and school administrator exist because of students
or closely connected and effective teaching is a vital
component of education.

48. Effective Teaching
William H Burton (1958)
states the following steps
towards effective teaching:
1. Teaching should be
related to learning.
2. Appropriate teaching
conditions should be
generated for an effective
learning.
3. Teaching strategies &
tactics should be selected
in such a manner as to
achieve the goals.
4. The teacher must
understand the relationship
of teaching and learning in
order to make the process a
successful one.

49. Principles of Effective Teaching
• 1. Encourage faculty-student contact.
• 2. Encourage co-operation among students.
• 3. Encourage active learning.
• 4. Prompt feedback.
• 5. Emphasize time on task.
• 6.Communicate high expectation.
• 7. Respect diverse talents & ways of learning.

50. Factors
Affecting
Teaching
• Teacher
• Teacher plays and important role in the
teaching-learning process as facilitator of
learning. By adopting the best teaching
techniques and efficient methods a teacher
could explore the right talent of the
learners to help them towards quality
learning process. It depends on the various
factors of teacher such as:
• Educational Qualification - Learning of
different subjects and area can provide
highly valued instruction which can effect
more than one who with only general
degree.

51. Skills
• Teaching Talent is a different psychological aspect. One who has higher degree can't
assure he has right instinct and can teach in better way than others. Teaching skill is all
about things which connect with students; it depends on the method of teaching, the way
of explanation and engagement with students in the class room. Teacher need to have
mastery of following skills:
 Communication skills for better involvement and engagement
 Use of teaching aids effectively
 Selection of teaching method appropriately
 Passion for teaching
 Human relation skills to act as best guide or mentor

52. • Experience - Its well-known fact that it's easy to become teacher after
fulfilling the criteria but they actually become 'Master' with their
experience. High Qualification may give teachers edge in terms of
understanding the different topics or complex formula but it's the experience
in the classroom which helps you to learn and employ better methods to
effect learning of students. This is also required to handle different mindset
of different students in the classroom.
• Subject matter - Many time teachers has been assigned a subject in which
he is not specialized and he himself not in better position to help learners in
effective way so the passion towards the subject and the subject matter
competency is also key factor that impact learning of students.

53. Learner
• Learning is most effective when the differences in learner's language,
cultural and social behaviours are taken into account, its necessary to
take note of intelligence, ethnic group, race, belief and socioeconomic
status of the learners which can influence the teaching in the class room.
• Every individual is different with others in the terms of physical, social
and cultural orientation, these aspects make learner different from one
another. Also, it depends on the interest of the learner including the
aptitude, attitude, motivation, mental health and aspiration towards the
goals of life.

54. Environment
• Environment and other factors
• Support materials - Teacher Support system is set of tools that will
improve student's achievement by improving the capacity of teachers.
Different teaching aids and support system influences the way the
decisions are made and information is passed to students. It helps to
analyze the area in which students are under performing. This also helps
teachers to gain new skill to increase student learning by use of effective
strategies. This is vast area which included many sub sections to be
worked upon by teacher to improve overall learning process through
effective use of tools, assessment methods and professional
development. Student assessments and scores through effective use of
tools, assessment methods and professional development.

55. Student
assessments and
scores
Teaching Strategies
and lesson plans
Standards and
benchmark
Effective use of
traditional, modern
and ICT based tools

56. Instructional
facilities
• Teaching Aids - Teaching aids are an
integral component in any classroom. The
many benefits of teaching aids include
helping learners improve reading
comprehension skills, illustrating or
reinforcing a skill or concept, differentiating
instruction and relieving anxiety or boredom
by presenting information in a new and
exciting way.

57. Learning environment
Class-room environments - Class room environment plays
important role in learning process and it effects both teacher and
learner. While this is to be maintained by both by teacher and
students.
For active participation in education, concentration of students is
required. Teacher needs to focus on behaviour of students along
with other factors to improve the class-room environment so that
students listen teachers' voice while interacting with students.

58. • Socio-economic factor - Economic and social background of teacher
and students also affect learning curve. It has direct and indirect
effects on thinking level of students and teacher both. Various study of
teaching has pointed poor and rich student classify economically and
these factors has influence on their learning speed. On other side if
teacher is less paid in terms of salary this also impact his thinking
level and ways of teaching in the classroom.

59. Expectations • Every parent have some sort of expectation with
his ward in terms of what and where they want to
see their children. This has psychological impact
on students causing stress and impairments.
• It is often seen that if student is not able to
perform mentally it create depression and
sometime leads to life failure.
• The reason behind this is parent's involvement in
the learning process is important to ease out
burden on students and helping them to improve
learning as overall.

60. Institution
Teacher is abiding by administrative policy of the institution effecting the learning process.
There are chances that Teacher want to deliver in a way he loves to do but the institute policy
don't allow him to use his own method.
This leads to dissatisfaction in teacher causing learning process to slow down.
It should not be the case that teacher should allow the way they want but effective planning of
lesson and consultation to improve learning path is required in line with the institute policy.

61. Science
Teacher
Good science teaching develops in children, the kinds
of attitudes, ways of thinking and solid knowledge
base that promote success in the real world.
Enthusiastic, intelligent, and well-educated science
teachers inspire and prepare students for the
technological world.
For science teaching to be effective, science teacher
has to keep pace with the developments and s/he
should constantly retrospect his/ her performance.
The classroom, library, laboratory, science club and
science workshop activities make special pedagogical
demands on the science teacher.

62. Osborn and Freyberg (1985) have classified the roles of teacher into six
(1) the teacher as a motivator
(2) the teacher as a diagnostician
(3) the teacher as a guide
(4) the teacher as an innovator
(5) the teacher as an experimenter and
(6) the teacher as a researcher.

63. Qualities of a
Science
Teacher
• Besides the academic qualifications
prescribed by the
government/authority/employer concerned, a
good science teacher should possess certain
special qualities also. It is not easy to have
all the good qualities in a science teacher.
However, the science teacher should possess
at least certain general and special qualities.
The qualities needed for a science teacher
can be classified into two as general qualities
and special qualities.

64. 1. General qualities
The qualities needed for a
science teacher under this
category is same as those
qualities needed for
teachers of other subjects.
They may include the
following:
a) Regular attendance and
punctuality
b) Sincerity to cover the
syllabus in time and
conducting regular
evaluation
c) Should possess a
knowledge of educational
psychology

65. d) Personal contact with students and special help to weak students
e) Availability to students even outside class hours
f) Insist on good discipline and good behaviour
g) Experiences joy in his/her work
h) Truthfulness and tolerance
i) Resourcefulness and always strive to improve competencies
j) Lack of bias/prejudice and value oriented

66. k) Self-
confidence and
strong will-
power
l) Simple living
and high
thinking
m) Social skills
such as empathy,
co-operative
mentality,
respect for
others, etc.
n) Willingness to
attend seminars,
workshops, etc.
for professional
growth

67. 2. Special qualities:
The special qualities
needed for a science
teacher are
enumerated below:
a) Thorough knowledge
of subject matter
b) Knowledge of history
of science and
innovations in science
c) Adequate knowledge
of other related
subjects
d) Well-versed in the
latest techniques,
strategies and
methodology of
teaching science

68. e) Practical skills to handle the apparatus and to manipulate equipment
f) Thorough knowledge and awareness regarding the system of examination
and evaluation and the changing trends in these area
g) Sufficient practical skills in improvising apparatus
h) Taste for conducting co-curricular activities related to science

69. i) Willingness to do research related to one’s own subject
j) Publication of books and articles in journals related
to science
k) Knowledge of laboratory-precautions and first aid
l) Ability to handle gadgets such as computer, LCD, etc.
and make use of ICT in education

70. Duties and
Responsibilities
of a Science
Teacher
The science
teacher should
a) Plan the work
for the whole
year before the
commencement
of the academic
year
b) Plan his/her
lessons well in
advance before
each class
c) Organise
science
laboratory,
science library
and science
museum

71. Facilitate
Facilitate curriculum
transaction in various
classes assigned to
him in the school
timetable
Guide and assist
Guide and assist
students in their
classrooms, laboratory
and library
Assign
Assign appropriate
and relevant
homework and
assignment to
students and assess
them regularly
Inform
Inform students of the
latest developments in
science
Attend
Attend summer
institutes, seminars,
workshops and other
in-service
programmes

72. Organise various co-curricular activities such as, science fair, science exhibition, science
excursion, field trip, nature walk, scientific hobbies, etc.
Organise
Actively assist in improving and developing science curriculum
Assist in
Keep regular record of the progress of students
Keep
Subscribe and contribute to good science and educational journals such as School
Science, Journal of Indian Education, Indian Education Review, etc.
Subscribe and
contribute
Help and assist the school administration especially in the conduct of various school
programmes
Help and assist

73. Multiple Roles
of Teacher
• Teacher as a Leader
• Teachers exhibit leadership in multiple,
sometimes overlapping, ways. Some leadership
roles are formal with designated responsibilities.
Other more informal roles emerge as teachers
interact with their peers. The variety of roles
ensures that teachers can find ways to lead that
fit their talents and interests. Regardless of the
roles they assume, teacher leaders shape the
culture of their schools, improve student
learning, and influence practice among their
peers.

74. Teachers demonstrate leadership by
a. Teachers lead in the classroom by:
- evaluating student progress using a variety of assessment-data measuring goals;
- drawing on appropriate data to develop classroom and instructional plans;
- maintaining a safe and orderly classroom that facilitates student learning; and
- positive management of student behaviour, effective communication to defuse and deescalate
disruptive or dangerous behaviour, and safe and appropriate seclusion and restraint techniques.

75. b. Teachers
demonstrate
leadership in
the school
by:
- engaging in collaborative professional
learning activities;
- identifying the characteristics or critical
elements of a school improvement plan;
and
- displaying an ability to use appropriate
data to identify areas of need that should
be addressed in a school improvement plan.

76. c. Teachers lead the teaching profession by: - participating in professional
development and growth activities; and
- developing professional relationships and networks.
d. Teachers advocate for schools and students by: - implementing and
adhering to policies and practices positively affecting students’ learning.
e. Teachers demonstrate high ethical standards.

77. Teacher as
a
Knowledge
Worker
• The main capital of knowledge worker is the
‘knowledge’. The knowledge worker can be
differentiated from other forms of workers by its
emphasis on non-routine problem solving that
requires a combination of convergent, divergent
and creative thinking.
• The kind of knowledge needed today requires
teachers to become high-level knowledge
workers who constantly advance their own
professional knowledge as well as that of their
profession. To be an effective teacher in this
century, teachers need to be able to engage and
interact with a wide variety of information from
an ever-increasing range of sources.

78. • Teachers today need to become lifelong learners in an information
society where the information of knowledge flows freely, is instant
and infinite. For occurring this, teachers and students alike need to
develop strategies for ‘engaging, working and constructing the new
knowledge’.

79. Knowledge workers must have the following qualities
Continuous learning
Autonomy
Innovation
Productivity
Asset
Quality over Quantity

80. Role of
knowledge
workers
Ability to brainstorm, thinking
broadly (divergent thinking)
Ability to drill down, creating
more focus (convergent thinking)
Identifying and understanding
new trends of teaching methods
Analysing data to establish
relationships

81. Facilitator
Facilitating professional learning opportunities among staff
members is another role for teacher leaders. When teachers learn
with and from one another, they can focus on what most directly
improves student learning.
Their professional learning becomes more relevant, focused on
teachers' classroom work, and aligned to fill gaps in student
learning.
Such communities of learning can break the norms of isolation
present in many schools and it begins with identifying student
learning needs, teachers' current level of knowledge and skills in
the target areas, and types of learning opportunities that different
groups of teachers need.

82. • a. Teachers show they know the ways in which learning takes place and the appropriate
levels of intellectual, physical, social, and emotional development of their students by:
• - identifying developmental levels of individual students and planning instruction
accordingly; and
• - assessing and using those resources needed to address the strengths and weaknesses of
students.
• b. Teachers plan instruction appropriate to their students by:
• - collaborating with colleagues to monitor student performance and making instruction
responsive to cultural differences and individual learning needs.

83. • c. Teachers show their acumen and versatility by:
• - using a variety of methods and materials suited to the needs of all students.
• d. Teachers display their awareness of technology’s potential to enhance learning by:
- integrating technology into their instruction to maximize student learning.
• e. Teachers help students grow as thinking individuals by: - integrating specific
instruction that helps students develop the ability to apply processes and strategies for
critical thinking and problem solving.
• f. Teachers help students to work in teams and develop leadership qualities by: -
organizing learning teams for the purpose of developing cooperation and student
leadership.

84. • g. Teachers reach their students best by:
• - using a variety of methods to communicate effectively with all pupils;
and
• - consistently encouraging and supporting students to articulate thoughts
and ideas clearly and effectively.
• h. Teachers best assess what students have learned by:
• - using multiple indicators, both formative and summative, to monitor
and evaluate student progress and to inform instruction; and
• - providing evidence that students are attaining 21st -century knowledge,
skills and dispositions.

85. Teacher as
a
Supervisor
Responsibilities of a teacher supervisor are:
Meet monitoring
requirements
Ensure proper lines
of communication
are established
Regularly review
the students daily
log
Submit student
marks for the
courses of the
study in which they
are enrolled
The supervisor is the person responsible for the
coordination of overall supervision of experiences. The
supervisor will make classroom observations of the student
teachers and will offer support and guidance to the
cooperating teachers. Supervisor will serve as a resource
for professional seminars and ongoing program evaluation.

86. • The supervisor has thorough knowledge appropriate to his or her
supervisory assignment and stays abreast of recent developments in the
field.
• The supervisor develops and administers a comprehensive system of
hiring, consistent with the policies of the school, which results in the
appointment of the best-qualified candidate and a well-informed match
between school and teacher.
• The supervisor ensures that faculty members new to the school receive
orientation and support sufficient for them to work effectively and with
confidence that they are carrying out the educational mission, policies,
and procedures of the school.
• He/she must ensure that teachers are informed of both praise and
criticism of their work and that useful support and assistance are
available to each teacher to improve the quality of teaching.
• The supervisor makes available to all faculty members on an equitable
basis whatever resources the school can provide for professional growth
and development, both inside and outside the school.

87. • The supervisor encourages and challenges teachers to initiate curricular
improvement by providing the necessary time and resources and by
creating structures to foster faculty collaboration on curriculum
development.
• The supervisor leads faculty members in upholding high standards of
professional behaviour and responds immediately when behaviour occurs
that is harmful to children or harmful to the school community.
• The supervisor evaluates and works to improve teaching through
classroom visits, discussions with teachers, and other methods that are fair
and consistent with the practices of the individual school.
• Evaluation is based on clearly articulated criteria that teachers have
helped define and occurs in a context of respect for the teacher’s
professional knowledge and decision-making capability.
• The supervisor also monitors his or her own work by inviting suggestions
and critiques from teachers.

88. Mentor
• Serving as a mentor for novice teachers is a common role for
teacher leaders. Mentors serve as role models. Being a mentor
takes a great deal of time and expertise and makes a significant
contribution to the development of a new professional. Mentors
generally provide support and guidance to new teachers and
advise new teachers about instruction, curriculum, procedure,
practices, and politics.
• The mentor may provide any or all of the following:
 Diminishing the fear that comes from having to go it alone.
 Providing support for developing course
 Provide demonstrations of good teaching practices
 Provide timely and constructive feedback on the mentee’s
performance
 Encourage the mentee to be self-confident
 Be a colleague
 Interpreting departmental policies and practices

89. Teacher as
a
Scaffolder
• Educational scaffolding is a teaching method that
enables a student to solve a problem, carryout a
task or achieve a goal through a gradual shedding
of outside assistance. Scaffold enlists the instructor
as an activator whose role is to facilitate the
student’s incremental mastery of a concept.
• Teacher’s duty in scaffolding includes:
 Provide tasks that enable the learner to build on
prior knowledge and internalize concepts.
 Motivate the student’s interest related to the task
 Simplify the task to make it more manageable and
achievable for a child
 Encourage ongoing dialogue, careful listening and
reading.

90. Teacher as a
Social
Engineer
• Teaching is a supreme social process which shapes the
future of society, ensures the peace & order, expel the
evils and paves the way to ethics.
• Teaching has always been considered as an
indispensable job for the preservation and development
of the intellectual life and civilization of mankind.
• The accumulated knowledge, experiences and cultures
of the human race are preserved and passed on from
one generation to another through the process of
education and the success of any educational program
mainly depends upon the quality of the teacher.

91. • Being a teacher doesn’t certify superiority over the student.
• A good and experiential teacher is highly ethical and flexible always ready to
listen to queries and problems.
• A good teacher can never be an autocratic; who always tries to behave like an
ideal and fully matured and treats the learners like a rough clay, rather a good
teacher always inspires their pupil to dreams more.
• The qualities of a good teacher reflect in the word Teacher itself and whosoever
possess such traits can be considered as supreme and respected social engineer
• Teacher is an independent variable which means if he modifies his/her
behaviour, the behaviour of dependent variable (student) will be spontaneously
modified.

92. • The job of an engineer is to place the objects
at their right place to ensure the quality and
strength of the construction, so is the job of a
good teacher to guide and counsel his pupil
at the right place and at the right time to
validate their prosperity.
• The dignity of a teacher lies in their own
commands. The dignity is not a thing to be
expected, but a thing that is to be cultivated
in the moor and innocent minds. Dignity is a
fragile cover which once tampered can’t be
healed easily.

93. • The good teacher lives the life of
selflessness. The teacher is that candle
who burns-down his essence to ignite
the candles of nation. The teacher
disseminates that light which burns the
veils of ignorance and prevails the
human security, that light which can’t
be visualized but can be felt, that light
which fertilizes the decertified soils.
• The teacher enables a pupil to perceive
what can’t be perceived through the
eyes and the senses.

94. Teacher as a
Reflective
Practitioner
• Reflective teaching means looking at what you
do in the classroom, thinking about why you do
it, and thinking about if it works-a process of
self-observation and self-evaluation.
• Every teacher has a professional responsibility
to be reflective and evaluative about their
practice.
• As a result of this reflection teachers will be able
to identify how to improve their professional
activity in order to improve the quality of the
learners' learning. Reflection causes teachers to
evaluate what happened and why; it encourages
teachers to try out new ideas and promote
changes in learner's learning behaviour.

95. • Reflective partnerships between teachers are particularly effective.
• Peer mentoring partnership will support individual teachers in reflection on and
describing their practice.
• As a result of these focussed discussions a teacher is able to better understand
practice and be able to take steps to improve practice.
• A further extension of this formative analysis is for the peer partnership to engage
in supported school-based enquiry.
• An enquiry may relate to individual teacher or whole school practice; the issue or
question to be investigated may become the focus for a piece of collaborative
action research.
• The teacher should collect information about what goes on in the classroom and
by analysing and evaluating the information, the teacher should identify and
explore their own practices and underlying beliefs. Thus, changes and
improvements in teaching may be made.

96. Virtual
Learning
Environment
(VLE)
• A Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)
in educational technology is a web-based platform
for the digital aspects of courses of study, usually
within educational institutions.
• They present resources, activities, and interactions
within a course structure and provide for the
different stages of assessment.
• VLEs also usually report on participation; and
have some level of integration with other
institutional systems.

97. VLE learning
platforms
commonly
allow:
Content management – creation, storage, access to and
use of learning resources
Curriculum mapping and planning – lesson planning,
assessment and personalisation of the learning
experience
Learner engagement and administration – managed
access to learner information and resources and
tracking of progress and achievement
Communication and collaboration – emails, notices,
chat, wikis, blogs
Real time communication – live video conferencing or
audio conferencing

98. A VLE
may
include
some or
all of the
following
elements:
 The course syllabus
 Administrative information about the course:
prerequisites, credits, registration, payments,
physical sessions, and contact information for the
instructor.
 A notice board for current information about the
ongoing course
 The basic content of some or all of the course; the
complete course for distance learning applications,
or some part of it, when used as a portion of a
conventional course. This normally includes
material such as copies of lecture in the form of
text, audio, or video presentations, and the
supporting visual presentations

99.  Additional resources, either integrated or as links to outside
resources. This typically consists of supplementary reading, or
innovative equivalents for it.
 Self-assessment quizzes or analogous devices, normally
scored automatically
 Formal assessment functions, such as examinations, essay
submission, or presentation of projects. This now frequently
includes components to support peer assessment
 Support for communications, including e-mail, threaded
discussions, chat rooms, Twitter and other media, sometimes
with the instructor or an assistant acting as moderator.
Additional elements include wikis, blogs, RSS and 3D virtual
learning spaces.
 Links to outside sources – pathways to all other online
learning spaces are linked via the VLE (Virtual Learning
Environment).
 Management of access rights for instructors, their assistants,
course support staff, and students

100. Documentation and statistics as required for
institutional administration and quality control
Authoring tools for creating the necessary
documents by the instructor, and, usually,
submissions by the students
Provision for the necessary hyperlinks to create
a unified presentation to the students.
Interactive online whiteboard for live virtual
classes

101. A VLE is normally not designed for a specific
course or subject, but is capable of supporting
multiple courses over the full range of the
academic program, giving a consistent interface
within the institution and—to some degree—
with other institutions using the system.
The virtual learning environment supports the
worldwide exchange of information between a
user and the learning institute he or she is
currently enrolled in through digital mediums
like e-mail, chat rooms, web 2.0 sites or a forum.

102. Changes in Approaches and Role of Teacher
A traditional view of the teacher’s role is as a giver of knowledge. Teachers share
knowledge with students on a particular subject, through lessons that build on
their prior knowledge and moves them toward a deeper understanding of the
subject. Supporting this view are underpinning beliefs about knowledge as being
‘fixed’ and able to be ‘transferred’.
Teachers do have other roles: as evaluators of how effectively the transfer of
knowledge has been achieved, as managers of behaviour and expectations, and
as ‘carers’ catering for the health and wellbeing needs of those in their charge.
But for the most part these exist to ensure the process of knowledge transfer is
efficiently served.

103. Today these expectations are being challenged. The fundamental
premise of teachers as the ‘conduit of knowledge’ is no longer valid. In
recent years cliches such as “moving from sage on the stage to guide
on the side” have emerged to illustrate the awareness of the changes
that are happening, focusing on the role of the teacher as more of a
facilitator, guide, mentor and coach for example.
As teachers move beyond their traditional role as experts in pedagogy
and curriculum, the expectations placed on individuals are becoming
unrealistic and unsustainable. Teachers are now expected to meet the
social and emotional needs of a diverse learner population, rapidly
implement ever-evolving pedagogical practices, deal with major
structural changes in learning environments, and do all of this more
collaboratively.

104. Added advances in technology mean that many of the ‘instructional’
roles of teachers are being challenged by personalised online learning
services, chatbots and artificial intelligence, to the point that some are
questioning whether there is a future for teachers as we know them.
As aspects of the teaching role become more automated teachers must
have a stronger emphasis on building capabilities across the key
competencies such as collaboration, communication, critical thinking,
and the ability to problem solve and make quick decisions.
In addition, the practice of working in isolation with a particular cohort
of learners must shift to a more team-based approach, not only within
the school environment, but recognising that the education of a young
person is the responsibility of community as a whole.

105. There are a number of key drivers including:
• Shifting from the concept of ‘delivering learning’ to ‘enabling
learning to happen’.
• Ensuring the school community provides learning
experiences that foster positive emotion to enhance greater
cognitive development.
• Learning experiences designed to meet the diverse and
variable needs of all learners to ensure learning is fully
inclusive and promotes success for all regardless of ability.
• Increasing recognition of societal changes, including issues
of equity and catering for students who come to school
disadvantaged.

106.  Pedagogies that focus on engagement, inquiry and active, flexible,
deep learning.
 Collaborative practice and the need to build relational trust across
teams.
 Deliberately designing learning to have horizontal connectedness
across a wide range of curriculum areas, the community and the
wider world.
 Learning experiences that open up opportunities for students to be
curious, creative, and innovative.
 Deliberately designing learning for innovation and creativity.
 Designing learning experiences where students can develop social
skills and relationships, collaborating with a range of different
people and peers.
 The emergence of robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) on such a
scale that the demand for humans as teachers/workers may actually
be under threat.