The document discusses various types of fuel, including solid, liquid, gaseous, biofuels, and nuclear fuels, highlighting their classifications, properties, and historical usage. It covers the advantages and disadvantages of solid and liquid fuels, alongside information on production methods and energy capacities. Additionally, the document addresses the environmental impact and emerging technologies related to fuel sources.

1. INTRODUCTION
OF
FUEL
By
Varun Pratap Singh

2. Fuel
• A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other
substances so that it releases chemical or nuclear energy as heat or
to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to
those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since
also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear
energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).
• The first known use of fuel was the combustion of wood or sticks
by Homo erectus nearly 2,000,000 (two million) years ago.
• Charcoal, a wood derivative, has been used since at least 6,000
BCE for melting metals. It was only supplanted by coke, derived
from coal, as European forests started to become depleted around
the 18th century. Charcoal briquettes are now commonly used as a
fuel for barbecue cooking.
• Coal was first used as a fuel around 1000 BCE in China.

3. Chemical fuels
• Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by
reacting with substances around them, most notably by
the process of combustion. Most of the chemical energy
released in combustion was not stored in the chemical
bonds of the fuel, but in the weak double bond of
molecular oxygen.
• Chemical fuels are divided in two ways. First, by their
physical properties, as a solid, liquid or gas. Secondly,
on the basis of their occurrence: primary (natural
fuel) and secondary (artificial fuel). Thus, a general
classification of chemical fuels is:

4. General types of chemical fuels

5. Solid fuel
• Solid fuel
• Refers to various forms of solid material that can be burnt to release energy, providing heat and light through the process
of combustion. examples of solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal, Hexamine fuel tablets, wood
pellets, corn, wheat, rye and other grains. Solid fuels are also extensively used in rocketry as solid propellants.
• Wood
• Wood fuel can refer to several fuels such as firewood, charcoal, chips, sheets, pellets, and sawdust. The particular form
used depends upon factors such as source, quantity, quality and application.
• Biomass
• Although wood is a form of biomass, the term usually refers to other natural plant material that can be burnt for fuel.
Common biomass fuels include waste wheat, straw, nut shells and other fibrous material.
• Peat
• Peat fuel is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter that can be burnt once sufficiently dried.
• Coal
• Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called
coal beds or coal seams.
• Coke
• Coke is a fuel with few impurities and a high carbon content, usually made from coal. It is the
solid carbonaceous material derived from destructive distillation of low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal. Cokes made
from coal are grey, hard, and porous. While coke can be formed naturally, the commonly used form is man-made. The
form known as petroleum coke, or pet coke, is derived from oil refinery coker units or other cracking processes.
• Municipal waste
• Municipal solid waste commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and as rubbish in Britain, is a waste
type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public. With the correct technology it can be gasified and
converted to a viable fuel source. However, this is technology heavy and can only be used where the waste is known not
to contain toxic materials.

6. Benefits/Disadvantages of solid fuel
• Solid fuels, compared to liquid fuels or gaseous fuels, are often
cheaper, easier to extract, more stable to transport and in many
places are more readily available. Coal, in particular, is utilized in
the generation of 38.1% of the world’s electricity because it is less
expensive and more powerful than its liquid and gas counterparts.
• However, solid fuels are also heavier to transport, require more
destructive methods to extract/burn and often have higher carbon,
nitrate and sulphate emissions. With the exception of sustainable
wood/biomass solid fuel is normally considered non-renewable as it
requires thousands of years to form.

7. Liquid Fuels
• Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be
harnessed to create mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy;
they also must take the shape of their container. It is the fumes of liquid
fuels that are flammable instead of the fluid. Most liquid fuels in
widespread use are derived from fossil fuels; however, there are several
types, such as hydrogen fuel (for automotive uses), ethanol, and biodiesel,
which are also categorized as a liquid fuel. Many liquid fuels play a
primary role in transportation and the economy.
• Liquid fuels are contrasted with solid fuels and gaseous fuels.
• General properties
• Some common properties of liquid fuels are that they are easy to transport,
and can be handled with relative ease. Also they are relatively easy to use
for all engineering applications, and home use. (Fuels like Kerosene are
rationed and available in government subsidized shops in India for home
use.) Liquid fuels are also used most popularly in Internal combustion
engines.
• Some very technically important properties include: flash point, fire
point, cloud point, and pour point.

8. Petroleum's
• Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The most notable of these is gasoline.
Scientists generally accept that petroleum formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and animals
by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust.
• Gasoline is the most widely used liquid fuel. Gasoline, as it is known in United States and Canada,
or petrol virtually everywhere else, is made of hydrocarbon molecules (compounds that contain hydrogen
and carbon only) forming aliphatic compounds, or chains of carbons with hydrogen atoms attached.
• Diesel fuel in general is any liquid fuel used in diesel engines, whose fuel ignition takes place, without
any spark, as a result of compression of the inlet air mixture and then injection of fuel. (Glow plugs, grid
heaters and heater blocks help achieve high temperatures for combustion during engine start-up in cold
weather.) Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and
thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load; as their air
supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, their efficiency still remains very high.
• Types
Petroleum diesel Synthetic diesel Biodiesel
Hydrogenated oils and fats DME
• Uses
Trucks, Railroad, Aircraft, Military vehicles, Cars, Tractors and heavy equipment
• Kerosene
Kerosene, also known as paraffin, lamp oil, and coal oil (an obsolete term), is
a combustible hydrocarbon liquid which is derived from petroleum, widely used as a fuel in industry as well
as households. Its name derives from Greek: keros meaning wax, and was registered as a trademark
by Abraham Gesner in 1854 before evolving into a generalized trademark. It is sometimes spelled kerosene in
scientific and industrial usage

12. Natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas
• Compressed natural gas
Natural gas, composed chiefly of methane, can be compressed to a
liquid and used as a substitute for other traditional liquid fuels. Its
combustion is very clean compared to other hydrocarbon fuels, but the
fuel's low boiling point requires the fuel to be kept at high pressures to
keep it in the liquid state. Though it has a much lower flash point than
fuels such as gasoline, it is in many ways safer due to its
higher autoignition temperature and its low density, which causes it to
dissipate when released in air.
• Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
LP gas is a mixture of propane and butane, both of which are easily
compressible gases under standard atmospheric conditions. It offers
many of the advantages of compressed natural gas (CNG), but is denser
than air, does not burn as cleanly, and is much more easily compressed.
Commonly used for cooking and space heating, LP gas and compressed
propane are seeing increased use in motorized vehicles; propane is the
third most commonly used motor fuel globally.

13. Non-petroleum fossil fuels
• When petroleum is not easily available, chemical processes such as the Fischer-Tropsch process can be
used to produce liquid fuels from coal or natural gas. Synthetic fuels from coal were strategically
important during World War II for the German military. Today synthetic fuels produced from natural gas
are manufactured, to take advantage of the higher value of liquid fuels in transportation.
Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is similar to diesel, but has differences akin to those between petrol and ethanol. For instance,
biodiesel has a higher cetane rating (45-60 compared to 45-50 for crude-oil-derived diesel) and it acts as
a cleaning agent to get rid of dirt and deposits. It has been argued that it only becomes economically
feasible above oil prices of $80 (£40 or €60 as of late February, 2007) per barrel. This does however
depend on locality, economic situation, government stance on biodiesel and a host of other factors- and it
has been proven to be viable at much lower costs in some countries. Also, it yields about 10% less energy
than ordinary diesel.
Alcohols
• Generally, the term alcohol refers to ethanol, the first organic chemical produced by humans, but any
alcohol can be burned as a fuel. Ethanol and methanol are the most common, being sufficiently
inexpensive to be useful.
Methanol
• Methanol is the lightest and simplest alcohol, produced from the natural gas component methane. Its
application is limited primarily due to its toxicity (similar to gasoline), but also due to its
high corrosivity and miscibility with water. Small amounts are used in some gasoline's to increase
the octane rating. Methanol-based fuels are used in some race cars and model airplanes.
• Methanol is also called methyl alcohol or wood alcohol, the latter because it was formerly produced from
the distillation of wood. It is also known by the name methyl hydrate.

14. Ethanol
• Ethanol, also known as grain alcohol or ethyl alcohol, is commonly found in alcoholic beverages. However, it
may also be used as a fuel, most often in combination with gasoline. For the most part, it is used in a 9:1 ratio of
gasoline to ethanol to reduce the negative environmental effects of gasoline.[citation needed]
• There is increasing interest in the use of a blend of 85% fuel ethanol blended with 15% gasoline. This fuel blend
called E85, has a higher fuel octane than most premium gasolines. When used in a modern Flexible fuel vehicle,
it delivers more performance to the gasoline it replaces at the expense of higher fuel consumption due to
ethanol's lesser specific energy content.[
• Ethanol for use in gasoline and industrial purposes may be considered a fossil fuel because it is often synthesized
from the petroleum product ethylene, which is cheaper than production
from fermentation of grains or sugarcane.
Butanol
• Butanol is an alcohol which can be used as a fuel in most gasoline internal combustion engines without engine
modification. It is typically a product of the fermentation of biomass by the bacterium Clostridium
acetobutylicum (also known as the Weizmann organism). This process was first delineated by Chaim
Weizmann in 1916 for the production of acetone from starch for making cordite, a smokeless gunpowder.
• The advantages of butanol are its high octane rating (over 100) and high energy content, only about 10% lower
than gasoline, and subsequently about 50% more energy-dense than ethanol, 100% more so than methanol.
Butanol's only major disadvantages are its high flashpoint (35 °C or 95 °F), toxicity (note that toxicity levels
exist but are not precisely confirmed), and the fact that the fermentation process for renewable butanol emits a
foul odour.
• On June 20, 2006, DuPont and BP announced that they were converting an existing ethanol plant to produce 9
million gallons (34 000 cubic meters) of butanol per year from sugar beets. DuPont stated a goal of being
competitive with oil at $30–$40 per barrel ($0.19-$0.25 per liter) without subsidies, so the price gap with ethanol
is narrowing.
Non-petroleum fossil fuels

15. Gaseous fuels
• Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are gaseous.
Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such
as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such
gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily
transmitted and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the
place of consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels,
though some fuel gases are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous
nature can be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and
the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is
possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the
risk of a gas explosion. For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so
that they may be detected by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in
current use is natural gas.
Non-petroleum fossil fuels

16. Biofuels
• Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived
from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known
as biomass fuel. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be
replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials
are used for biofuel manufacture.
• Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows controlled
fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is unknown
which hominid species first used fire, as both Australopithecus and an early species
of Homo were present at the sites.As a fuel, wood has remained in use up until the
present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other sources.
Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg.
• Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for
example Bioethanol and Biodiesel), but there is widespread public debate about
how carbon efficient these fuels are.
Non-petroleum fossil fuels

17. Fossil fuels
• Extraction of petroleum Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons,
primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural gas), formed
from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and animals by exposure to
high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in the Earth's crust over
hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel also includes
hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely from
biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly
known as mineral fuels.
• Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and
include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. They range from volatile
materials with low carbon: hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid
petroleum to non-volatile materials composed of almost pure carbon,
like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone,
associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels
formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and
pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This biogenic
theory was first introduced by German scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and
later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

18. Energy
Energy capacities of common types of fuel
Fuel
Specific
energy
(MJ/kg)
AFR stoich. FAR stoich.
Energy
@ λ=1 (MJ/kg
(Air))
Diesel 48 14.5 : 1 0.069 : 1 3.310
Ethanol 26.4 9 : 1 0.111 : 1 2.933
Gasoline 46.4 14.7 : 1 0.068 : 1 3.156
Hydrogen 142 34.3 : 1 0.029 : 1 4.140
Kerosene 46 15.6 : 1 0.064 : 1 2.949
LPG 46.4 17.2 : 1 0.058 : 1 2.698
Methanol 19.7 6.47 : 1 0.155 : 1 3.045
Nitromethane 11.63 1.7 : 1 0.588 : 1 6.841
The amount of energy from different types of fuel depends on the stoichiometric ratio,
the chemically correct air and fuel ratio to ensure complete combustion of fuel, and
its specific energy, the energy per unit mass.

19. • Nuclear fuel is any material that is consumed to derive nuclear energy.
Technically speaking, All matter can be a nuclear fuel because any element
under the right conditions will release nuclear energy,[dubious – discuss] but the
materials commonly referred to as nuclear fuels are those that will produce
energy without being placed under extreme duress. Nuclear fuel is a
material that can be 'burned' by nuclear fission or fusion to derive nuclear
energy. Nuclear fuel can refer to the fuel itself, or to physical objects (for
example bundles composed of fuel rods) composed of the fuel material,
mixed with structural, neutron moderating, or neutron reflecting materials.
• Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of
nuclear fission. When these fuels are struck by neutrons, they are in turn
capable of emitting neutrons when they break apart. This makes possible a
self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy with a controlled rate in
a nuclear reactor or with a very rapid uncontrolled rate in a nuclear
weapon.
• Nuclear fuel is a substance that is used in nuclear power stations to
produce heat to power turbines. Heat is created when nuclear fuel
undergoes nuclear fission.
• Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile elements that are capable of
nuclear fission, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239. When the unstable
nuclei of these atoms are hit by a slow-moving neutron, they split, creating
two daughter nuclei and two or three more neutrons. These neutrons then
go on to split more nuclei. This creates a self-sustaining chain reaction that
is controlled in a nuclear reactor, or uncontrolled in a nuclear weapon.
Nuclear

20. Coal
• With the energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released
through combustion, but the concept development of the steam engine in
the United Kingdom in 1769, coal came into more common use as a power
source. Coal was later used to drive ships and locomotives. By the 19th
century, gas extracted from coal was being used for street lighting
in London. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the primary use of coal is to
generate electricity, providing 40% of the world's electrical power supply
in 2005.
• Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually
occurring in rock strata in layers or veinscalled coal beds or coal seams.
The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic
rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal
is composed primarily of carbon, along with variable quantities of other
elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.[1] A fossil fuel,
coal forms when dead plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is
converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous
coal, and lastly anthracite. This involves biological and geological
processes that take place over time.

21. Formation
• At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas. Due to
natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil
deposited over them, they were compressed. The temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper.
As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation, usually by
mud or acidic water. This trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and
deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly
converted to coal. As coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called
carbonization.
• The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation,
although coal is known from most geological periods. The exception is the coal gap in the Permian–
Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate
land plants—this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae.

22. Types of Coal
1. Peat:
a. contains the highest percentage of moisture, gives
more smoke, has less than 40 per cent carbon and,
b. therefore, is the lowest and most inferior quality of
coal.
c. represents the first stage of coal formation.
2. Lignite (Brown-Coal):
a. Superior to peat.
b. Under the increasing pressure and heat, with the
passage of time, peat is converted into lignite.
c. contains 40 to 60 per cent carbon. It is mainly found in
Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), Palna (Rajasthan), Lakhimpur
(Assam), Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya), Nagaland, Kerala,
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, and the union
territory of Pondicherry.
d. deposits in India estimated around 38930 million
tonnes, out of which 4150 million tonnes are in Neyveli
area of Tamil Nadu (2010).
e. also found in Assam, Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir,
Kerala, Meghalaya, Nagaland, and Rajasthan.
3.Bituminous (Black-Coal):
a. When coal is buried very deep, the moisture gets
expelled.
b. The seam subjected to increased temperatures
results into the formation of bituminous coal.
c. dense, compact and black in colour.
d. The traces of original vegetation from which it has
been formed are found in this coal.
e. Containing 60 to 80 per cent carbon,
f. the most popular coal in commercial use.
g. The name is derived after a liquid called bitumen
released after heating.
h. used in making coke (coking coal), gas coal, and
steam coal.
i. Coking coal results from the heating of coal in the
absence of oxygen, which burns off volatile gases
and is mainly j. j. used in iron and steel industry.
k. found in Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, West
Bengal and Madhya Pradesh
4.Anthracite (Hard Coal)
a. highest quality of coal containing 80 to 90 per cent
carbon. b. very little volatile matter and insignificant
proportion of moisture.
c. short blue flame. d. the most expensive.

23. RANKS
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under
suitable conditions, its metamorphic grade increases successively into:
• Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in
some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is
a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also
used as a conditioner for soil to make it more able to retain and slowly release
water.
• Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively
as fuel for electric power generation.
– Jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an
ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic.
• Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of
bituminous coal, is used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation
and is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical
synthesis industry.
• Bituminous coal is a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark
brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material; it is used
primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities
used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
• "Steam coal" is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely
used as a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use, it is sometimes
known as "sea coal" in the US. Small steam coal (dry small steam nuts or
DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water heating.
• Anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a harder, glossy black coal used
primarily for residential and commercial space heating. It may be divided
further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and "petrified oil", as
from the deposits in Pennsylvania.

24. Classification of Coal by Rank
(ASTM D388-12)
Classification of Coal by Rank (ASTM D388-12)
Coal Rank
Fix Carbon
Limits
Volatile Content Gross Calorific Value Limits
Agglomerating
Characteristics% % Btu/lb MJ/kg
dmmf dmmf Moisture mmf moisture mmf
Antracite Class
Meta- Anthracite ≥98% <2%
Non-agglomerating
Anthracite 92 to 98% 2 to 8%
Semi-Anthracite
(Lean Coal)
86 to 92% 8 to 14%
Bituminous
Low Volatile
Bituminous
78 to 86% 14 to 22%
Commonly agglomerating
Medium Volatile
Bituminous
69 to 78% 22 to 31%
High Volatile A
Bituminous
<69% >31% ≥14,000 ≥32.557
High Volatile B
Bituminous
<69% >31% 13,000 to 14,000 30.232 to 32.557
High Volatile C
Bituminous
<69% >31% 11,500 to 13,000 26.743 to 30.232
High Volatile C
Bituminous
>31% 10,500 to 11,500 24.418 to 26.743 Agglomerating
Subbituminous
Subbituminous A
coal
10,500 to 11,500 24.418 to 26.743
Non-agglomerating
Subbituminous B
coal
9,500 to 10,500 22.09 to 24.418
Subbituminous C
coal
8,300 to 9,500 19.30 to 22.09
Lignite
Lignite A 6,300 to 8,300 14.65 to 19.30
Non-agglomerating

25. World Coal Reserves
• The 948 billion short tons of recoverable coal reserves estimated by the Energy Information
Administration are equal to about 4,196 BBOE (billion barrels of oil equivalent). The
amount of coal burned during 2007 was estimated at 7.075 billion short tons, or 133.179
quadrillion BTUs. This is an average of 18.8 million BTU per short ton. In terms of heat
content, this is about 57,000,000 barrels (9,100,000 m3) of oil equivalent per day. By
comparison in 2007, natural gas provided 51,000,000 barrels (8,100,000 m3) of oil
equivalent per day, while oil provided 85,800,000 barrels (13,640,000 m3) per day.

27. Coal Reserve in India
Distribution of Coalfields in India:
1.Jharkhand:
accounting for about 29 per cent, has the first rank in coal
reserves and its production.
belongs to the Gondwana period.
Main coal mining centres are Auranga, Bokaro, Daltenganj,
Dhanbad, Giridih, Hutar, Jharia, Karanpur, and Ramgarh .
(a) The Jharia:
1. Jharia is the largest and most important coal producing
mine, which sprawls over an area of about 460 sq km.
2. contains the best metallurgical coal (bituminous).
3. Nearly 90 per cent of the coking coal is produced from the
Jharia mine.
4. coal is mainly supplied to the iron and steel plants of
Asansol, Bokaro, Durgapur, and Jamshedpur.
(b)The Bokaro Coalfield:
1. stretches in the valley of Bokaro river in Hazaribagh
district,
2. mainly supplied to the iron and steel plant of Bokaro.
(c) The Giridih or Karharbari Coalfield:
stretches in the district of Hazaribagh.
coal is supplied to the Bokaro and Jamshedpur steel plants.
(d) The Karanpur Coalfield:
(e) The Ramgarh Coalfield:
(f) The Hutar Coalfield:
(g) The Daltenganj Coalfield;
(h) Deogarh Coalfields:
mainly used in the brick kilns.

28. • Orissa:
1.The state of Orissa has more than 24 per cent of the total
coal reserves and produces about 15 per cent of the total
coal production of the country.
2. In Orissa most of the coal deposits are found in
Dhenkanal, Sambalpur, and Sundargarh districts.
The Talcher Coalfield:
3. Stretching over Dhenkanal and Sambalpur districts, the
Talcher coalfield covers an area of about 500 sq km.
4. the second largest coal reserves in the country after
Raniganj. .
5. mainly utilised in the thermal power and fertiliser plants
of Talcher.
• Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh:
• The state of Chhattisgarh has the third largest coal reserves
(about 17 per cent of all India) in the country after
Jharkhand and Orissa, but it holds the first rank in its
production.
The Singrauli Coalfield:
The Korba Coalfield:
The Pech-Kanha-Tawa Coalfield:
Umaria Coalfield:
Coal Reserve in India
• West Bengal:
1.West Bengal has about 11 per cent of the total coal
reserves of India.
2.The coal deposits of West Bengal lie in Bankura,
Bardhman, Birbhum, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and
Puruliya districts.
3. The most important of coal reserves and mining
coalfield of West Bengal is Raniganj.
Raniganj Coalfield:
•Stretching over 185 sq km in the Bardhman and
Birbhum district to the north-west of Kolkata, it is the
most important coalfield of West Bengal.
1. known for the good quality of coking coal.
2. contains 50 to 65 per cent of carbon.
3. used in the metallurgical industry, especially in the
Durgapur iron and steel plant.
The Darjeeling Coalfield:
powder form with coking quality.
• Madhya Pradesh:
About 8 per cent of the coal reserves of India are found
in Madhya Pradesh,
The main coal deposits lie at Singrauli, Muhpani,
Satpura, Sohagpur and Pench-Kanhan.

29. Andhra Pradesh:
About 7 per cent of the coal reserves of India are found in
Andhra Pradesh.
found in the Godavari valley.
The Singareni coalfield lying about 185 km to the east of
Hyderabad is the main mining area of coal in Andhra
Pradesh.
Another important coal producing centre is at Kottagudam.
Its coal seam is of about 18 metres and the coal is of good
quality.
Maharashtra:
lie in the Wardha valley, stretching over the Nagpur
(Kampte-coalfield), and Yavatmal districts.
utilised by the railways and the thermal power stations of
Trombay, Chola (Kalyan), Khaperkheda, Paras, Ballarshah,
Nasik and Koradi
Coal Deposits of the Tertiary Period
came into existence during the Eocene, the Oligocene, and
Miocene periods.
found in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland,
and Jammu and Kashmir states.
also known as brown coal.
Containing more moisture, it has less carbon content.
Tamil Nadu:
the largest deposits of lignite at Neyveli in the South Arcot
district.
Coal Reserve in India
Rajasthan:
Lignite deposits are found in the districts of Bikaner (Palana
and Khari mines).
It is of inferior quality and used mostly in the thermal power
plants and railways.
Gujarat:
Found in Bharauch district and Kachchh.
poor quality with about 35 per cent carbon and more
moisture.
Jammu and Kashmir:
found at Raithan of the Shaliganga, Handwara, Baramulla,
Riasi and Udhampur districts, and the karewas of Badgam
and Srinagar.
inferior quality.
West Bengal:
lignite deposits of the Tertiary period are found in Burza
Hills of Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts.
Scattered deposits of lignite have also been discovered in
Pondicherry.
Problems of Coal Industry in India:
The main problems of the coal mining industry are as under:
Unequal Distribution of Coal
Poor Quality of Coal
Less Efficient Transport System
Obsolete Method of Mining.
Shortage of Power Supply
Fires and Water-logging

30. Conservation of Coal
• Conservation of Coal
• The coking and good quality coal should be reserved only for
metallurgical industry.
• Low grade coal should be washed and impurities removed by
modern techniques.
• Selective mining should be stopped by an act of law. All possible
grades of coal should be obtained from all the mines.
• Environmental safety laws should be effectively implemented.
• The thermal power plants should be located at the pit-heads to
enhance power generation.
• The pilferages and theft of electricity should be minimised.
• New reserves should be discovered. 8. The non-conventional
sources of energy should be popularised.

31. Proved recoverable coal reserves at end-2008
or 2011 (Million Tonnes)
Country
Anthracite &
Bituminous
SubBituminou
s
Lignite Total
Percenta
ge of
World
Total
Year
United States 108,501 98,618 30,176 237,295 22.6 2011
Russia 49,088 97,472 10,450 157,010 14.4 2011
China 62,200 33,700 18,600 114,500 12.6 2011
Australia 37,100 2,100 37,200 76,400 8.9 2011
India 56,100 0 4,500 60,600 7.0 2011
Germany 99 0 40,600 40,699 4.7
Ukraine 15,351 16,577 1,945 33,873 3.9
Kazakhstan 21,500 0 12,100 33,600 3.9
South Africa 30,156 0 0 30,156 3.5
World Total 403,197 287,333 201,000 891,530 100 2011

32. Production of Coal by Country and year
(Million Tonnes)
Major coal consumers
Countries with annual consumption higher than 100 million tonnes are shown. For comparison,
data for the European Union is also shown. Shares are based on data expressed in tonnes oil
equivalent.

33. Major Coal Exporters
Major Coal Exporters
Countries with annual gross export higher than 10 million tonnes are shown. In terms of
net export the largest exporters are still Australia (328.1 millions tonnes), Indonesia
(316.2) and Russia (100.2).

34. Major Coal Importers
Major coal importers
• Countries with annual gross import higher than 20 million tonnes are shown.
In terms of net import the largest importers are still Japan (206.0 millions
tonnes), China (172.4) and South Korea (125.8)

35. FUEL PRORETIES
Properties of Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS are predominantly used in industrial application.
The various properties of liquid fuels are given below.
Density
This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference temperature of
15°C. Density is measured by an instrument called hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful for
quantity calculations and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3.
Specific gravity
This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same
volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative to water, is called
specific gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio,
it has no units. The measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.
Specific gravity is used in calculations involving weights and volumes. The specific
gravity of various fuel oils are given in Table 1.1

36. Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on
temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Any numerical value for viscosity has no
meaning unless the temperature is also specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes / Centistokes.
Sometimes viscosity is also quoted in Engler, Say bolt or Redwood. Each type of oil has its own
temperature - viscosity relationship. The measurement of viscosity is made with an instrument
called Viscometer.
Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel oil. It influences
the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is
too viscous, it may become difficult to pump, hard to light the burner, and tough to operate.
Poor atomization may result in the formation of carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the
walls. Therefore pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization.
Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. Flash point for
furnace oil is 66°C.
Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled
under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which
fuel oil is readily pumpable.
FUEL PRORETIES

37. • Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of kCals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1°C. The unit of specific heat is
kCal/kg°C. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specific gravity. The specific heat determines how much
steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas
heavier oils have a higher specific heat.
• Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either as gross calorific value or net
calorific value. The difference being the latent heat of condensation of the water vapour produced during the combustion
process. Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced during the combustion process is fully condensed.
Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without fully being
condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value. The calorific value of coal varies considerably
depending on the ash, moisture content and the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much more consistent.
The typical Gross Calorific Values of some of the commonly used liquid fuels are given below:
• Sulphur
The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the crude oil and to a lesser extent on the refining
process. The normal sulphur content for the residual fuel oil (furnace oil) is in the order of 2-4 %. Typical figures are:
• The main disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during and after combustion, and
condensing in cool parts of the chimney or stack, air pre heater and economiser.

38. Ash Content
The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The ash levels of distillate fuels
are negligible. Residual fuels have more of the ash-forming constituents. These salts may be
compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminium, nickel, etc.
Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03–0.07%. Excessive ash in liquid fuels can cause
fouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has erosive effect on the burner tips,
causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperature
corrosion and fouling of equipment's.
Carbon Residue
Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot
surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporisable constituents evaporate.
Residual oil contain carbon residue ranging from 1 percent or more.
Water Content
Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the product at refinery site
is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the standard.
Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage to the inside furnace
surfaces during combustion especially if it contains dissolved salts. It can also cause spluttering
of the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing the flame and reducing the flame
temperature or lengthening the flame.
FUEL PRORETIES

39. Typical specification of fuel oil is summarised in the Table 1.2.
FUEL PRORETIES

40. Properties of Coal
Coal Classification
• Coal is classified into three major types namely anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. However
there is no clear demarcation between them and coal is also further classified as semi
anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous. Anthracite is the oldest coal from
geological perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little volatile content
and practically no moisture. Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective. It is a
soft coal composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture content with low fixed carbon.
Fixed carbon refers to carbon in its free state, not combined with other elements. Volatile
matter refers to those combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when coal is heated.
The common coals used in Indian industry are bituminous and sub-bituminous coal.
The gradation of Indian coal based on its calorific value is as follows:
• Normally D, E and F coal grades are available to Indian Industry.
• The chemical composition of coal has a strong influence on its combustibility. The properties
of coal are broadly classified as
• 1. Physical properties
• 2. Chemical properties
FUEL PRORETIES

41. Physical Properties
Heating Value:
The heating value of coal varies from coal field to coal field. The typical GCVs for various
coals are given in the Table 1.4.
Analysis of Coal
• There are two methods: ultimate analysis and proximate analysis. The ultimate analysis determines
all coal component elements, solid or gaseous and the proximate analysis determines only the fixed
carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages. The ultimate analysis is determined in a
properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist, while proximate analysis can be determined
with a simple apparatus. It may be noted that proximate has no connection with the word
“approximate”.
Measurement of Moisture
• Determination of moisture is carried out by placing a sample of powdered raw coal of size 200-
micron size in an uncovered crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at 108±2°C along with the
lid. Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed again. The loss in weight
represents moisture.
FUEL PRORETIES

42. Measurement of Volatile Matter
• Fresh sample of crushed coal is weighed, placed in a covered crucible, and
heated in a furnace at 900 ± 15°C. For the methodologies including that for
carbon and ash, refer to IS 1350 part I:1984, part III, IV. The sample is
cooled and weighed. Loss of weight represents moisture and volatile matter.
The remainder is coke (fixed carbon and ash).
Measurement of Carbon and Ash
• The cover from the crucible used in the last test is removed and the crucible
is heated over the Bunsen burner until all the carbon is burned. The residue
is weighed, which is the incombustible ash. The difference in weight from
the previous weighing is the fixed carbon. In actual practice Fixed Carbon or
FC derived by subtracting from 100 the value of moisture, volatile matter
and ash.
•
FUEL PRORETIES

43. Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis indicates the percentage by weight of the Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash, and
Moisture Content in coal. The amounts of fixed carbon and volatile combustible matter directly
contribute to the heating value of coal. Fixed carbon acts as a main heat generator during burning.
High volatile matter content indicates easy ignition of fuel. The ash content is important in the
design of the furnace grate, combustion volume, pollution control equipment and ash handling
systems of a furnace. A typical proximate analysis of various coal is given in the Table 1.5.
FUEL PRORETIES

44. A fuel is basically a source of heat.The usual method of producing heat
from fuel is by the process of combustion, which is a chemical reaction
between fuel and oxidant.
We can analyze a fuel in three ways…..
1.Proximate analysis
2.Ultimate Analysis
3.Orast Analysis
FUELANALYSIS

45. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
The proximate analysis of a fuel indicates the moisture,volatile matter, fixed carbon and
ash content of the fuel in terms of percentage by weight.
•Moisture means the water expelled from the fuel by specified methods without causing
any chemical change to the fuel.
•Volatile matter is the loss in weight minus the moisture when the fuel is heated out of
contact with air to a sufficiently high temperature under specified conditions.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
•Ash is the inorganic residue left when the fuel is completely burnt in air under specified
conditions. It is different from the original mineral matter associated with the coal because of
changes that take place during incineration.
•Fixed carbon is the residue obtained by subtracting the sum of the percentages by weight of
moisture, volatile matter and ash from 100.It is essentially carbon containing minor amounts of
nitrogen, Sulphur, oxygen and hydrogen.
FUELANALYSIS

46. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
The ultimate analysis of a fuel gives its elementary composition. It is the analysis in terms of the
percentage by weight of the elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur which
constitute the pure feel, free from moisture and inorganic constituents.
ORAST ANALYSIS
The composition of a gaseous of a gaseous fuel may be determined by analysis in a standard
apparatus known as the Orast apparatus. The Orast analysis normally reports the percentage
quantities of carbon di-oxide, oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen.
Importance of Flue Gas Analysis:
(i) The analysis gives the idea of whether a combustion process is complete or not.
(ii) The C and H present in a fuel undergo combustion forming CO2 and H2O respectively. Any
N present is not at all involved in the combustion. ie., the products of combustion are CO2, H2O
and N2.
(iii) If analysis of a flue gas indicates the presence of CO; it is suggestive of incomplete
combustion. (wastage of heat is inferred).
(iv) If there is considerable amount of oxygen, it shows that there is excess supply of O2 although
combustion would have been complete.
FUELANALYSIS

47. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
Significance of Various Parameters in Proximate Analysis
(a) Fixed carbon:
Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off. It consists
mostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen not driven off
with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of heating value of coal.
(b) Volatile Matter:
Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and
incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal. Thus the volatile matter is
an index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of volatile matter is 20 to 35%. Volatile
Matter,
• Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal.
• Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume.
• Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects.
• Influences secondary oil support
(c) Ash Content
Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical range is 5 to 40% Ash
• Reduces handling and burning capacity.
• Increases handling costs.
• Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
• Causes clinkering and slagging.

48. Significance of ash content:
1) Ash in the combination product of mineral matter in the coal. It consists mainly SiO2, Al2O3
and Fe2O3 with varying amount of other oxides such as Na2O, CaO, MgO etc.
2) Ash containing the oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt easily.
3) High ash content in coal is undesirable because it
i) increases transporting, handling and storage costs
ii) is harder and stronger
iii) has lower calorific value
(d) Moisture Content:
Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored. Since it replaces combustible matter,
it decreases the heat content per kg of coal. Typical range is 0.5 to 10% Moisture
• Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapour
• Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
• Aids radiation heat transfer.
(e) Sulphur Content:
Typical range is 0.5 to 0.8% normally.
• Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies
• Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economisers
• Limits exit flue gas temperature.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

49. Significance of Hydrogen: It increases the calorific value of the coal. It is associated
with the volatile matter of the coal. When the coal containing more of hydrogen is heated, it
combines with nitrogen present in coal forming ammonia. Ammonia is usually recovered as
(NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer
Significance of Nitrogen: Presence of nitrogen decreases the calorific value of the coal.
However, when coal is carbonized, its N2 and H2 combine and form NH3. Ammonia is recovered
as (NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer.
Significance of oxygen in coal
The less the oxygen content, the better is the coal. As the oxygen content increases, its moisture
holding capacity also increases.
PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

50. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
The ultimate analysis indicates the various elemental chemical constituents such as Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc. It is useful in determining the quantity of air required for
combustion and the volume and composition of the combustion gases. This information is
required for the calculation of flame temperature and the flue duct design etc. Typical ultimate
analyses of various coals are given in the Table 1.6.

51. Storage, Handling and Preparation of Coal
Uncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and subsequent
handling. Stocking of coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory, space
constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associated with
the storage of coal include oxidation, wind and carpet loss. A 1% oxidation of coal has the same
effect as 1% ash in coal, wind losses may account for nearly 0.5 – 1.0% of the total loss.
The main goal of good coal storage is to minimise carpet loss and the loss due to spontaneous
combustion. Formation of a soft carpet, comprising of coal, dust, and soil causes carpet loss. On
the other hand, gradual temperature builds up in a coal heap, on account of oxidation may lead to
spontaneous combustion of coal in storage.
The measures that would help in reducing the carpet losses are as follows:
1. Preparing a hard ground for coal to be stacked upon.
2. Preparing standard storage bays out of concrete and brick.
In process Industry, modes of coal handling range from manual to conveyor systems.
It would be advisable to minimise the handling of coal so that further generation of fines and
segregation effects are reduced.
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

52. Preparation of Coal
Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for achieving good
combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:
1. Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.
2. Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.
3. Increase of unburnt in the ash.
4. Low thermal efficiency.
(a) Sizing of Coal
Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion. Proper
coal sizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps towards even
burning, reduced ash losses and better combustion efficiency.
Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be economical
for smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal handling system,
crushing is limited to a top size of 6 or 4 mm. The devices most commonly used for
crushing are the rotary breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill.
It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is fed to
the crusher. This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher. Recommended
practices in coal crushing are:
1. Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid extra fine
generation in crushing.
2. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may
damage the crusher.

53. The Table 1.8 gives the proper size of coal for various types of firing systems

54. Combustion
Principle of Combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat, or heat
and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate
supply of oxygen.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air. Rapid
fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to
a gas before they will burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. Fuel
gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present.
Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements.
Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing dilutant that must be present to obtain the
oxygen required for combustion.
Combustion

55. Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels and
diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat exchange
surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then have to travel
through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel air
mixture.
This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame temperatures) to
produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic pollutants.
Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon
dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide, releasing 8084 kCals, 28922 kCals & 2224 kCals of
heat respectively. Under certain conditions, Carbon may also combine with Oxygen to form
Carbon Monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller quantity of heat (2430 kCals/kg of
carbon) Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more heat per pound of fuel than when CO or smoke
are produced.
Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat.(8084-2430)

56. Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air
Considering a sample of 100 kg of furnace oil. The chemical reactions are:
Element Molecular Weight
kg / kg mole
C 12
O2 32
H2 2
S 32
N2 28
CO2 44
SO2 64
H2O 18
Molecular Weight Calculation and
Equation

57. C + O2 CO2
H2 + 1/2O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
Constituents of fuel
C + O2 CO2
12 + 32 44
12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 44 kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 kg
of carbon requires 32/12 kg i.e 2.67 kg of oxygen.
(85.9) C + (85.9 × 2.67) O2 315.25 CO2
2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 + 32 36
4 kg of hydrogen requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 36 kg of water, therefore 1 kg of hydrogen
requires 32/4 kg i.e 8 kg of oxygen
(12) H2 + (12 × 8) O2 (12 x 9 ) H2O
S + O2 SO2
32 + 32 64
32 kg of sulphur requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 64 kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1 kg of
sulphur requires 32/32 kg i.e 1 kg of oxygen.
(0.5) S + (0.5 × 1) O2 1.0 SO2

58. Numerical Part
For Numerical Part Please Refer to Second part of this Topic from
Slide Share.com, with below Mentioned Title and Link:
Combustion of Fuel (Proximate Analysis and Ultimate Analysis of fuel)
https://www.slideshare.net/rayvarun/combustion-of-fuel-proximate-
analysis-and-ultimate-analysis-of-fuel