C++ is an object-oriented programming language. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
at AT and T Bell Laboratories USA, in the early 1980’s. Stroustrup, an admirer of
Simula67 and a strong supporter of C wanted to combine the best of both the languages
and create a more powerful language that could support object-oriented programming
features and still retain the power and elegance of C. The result was C++
The document provides an overview of the basic structure and components of a C program. It discusses that every C program has the following general structure: comments, preprocessing commands, global declarations, the main function, local declarations within main, executable statements, and user-defined functions. It also summarizes some key elements of C including data types, variables, constants, operators, and tokens.
The document provides information about C language and its features. It discusses that C was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 and is a general purpose programming language well suited for business and scientific applications. It also summarizes the basic structure of a C program and describes various C language components like data types, operators, and conditional statements.
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses that C is a general purpose, structured programming language that resembles algebraic expressions and contains keywords like if, else, for, do and while. C can be used for both systems and applications programming due to its flexibility. The document then discusses the structure of a C program, which consists of functions like main that contain statements grouped into blocks. It also covers C language components like data types, constants, variables and keywords. An example program that calculates the area of a circle is provided to demonstrate basic C syntax and components. Finally, conditional statements like if, if else, else if and switch that allow program flow control are introduced.
The document provides information about C programming language and its features. It discusses the basic structure of a C program which includes documentation, link, definition, global declaration, main function, and sub-program sections. It also describes the four steps to execute a C program: create, compile, link, and execute. Different forms of the main statement in C are discussed including main(), main(void), int main(), void main(), void main(void), and int main(void).
C is a general purpose programming language developed in the 1970s. It has features like control structures, looping statements, and arrays that make it well-suited for business and scientific applications. A C program executes in four steps - creating the program, compiling it, linking it to libraries, and executing the final executable file. C has keywords, variables, data types, operators, and conditional statements that allow for structured programming and control flow.
The document describes the unique features of the C++ and PHP programming languages. It discusses the history of C++, which was created by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 by adding object-oriented programming capabilities to the C language. Some key features of C++ include performance, low-level hardware interaction capabilities, powerful abstractions like generic code, and support for multiple programming paradigms like object-oriented, imperative, functional and logic programming. The document also provides examples of code written in C++ to illustrate various programming concepts.
The document discusses the steps involved in executing a program written in language L. These steps include translation, linking, relocation, and loading. The translator outputs an object module, which contains program code, relocation tables, and linking tables. The linker processes multiple object modules, relocating addresses and resolving external references to produce an executable binary program. It builds a name table containing symbols and their loaded addresses. This allows the linker to modify address operands to point to the correct memory locations for program execution.
This document discusses nested macros in system programming. It defines a macro as a unit of program specification that allows code expansion. A macro can contain a call to another macro, known as a nested macro call. Nested macro calls are expanded following the LIFO (last-in-first-out) rule, where the innermost macro call is expanded first. The document provides an example of a nested macro call in C code and how the macros would expand to generate the final code.
The document provides an overview of the basic structure and components of a C program. It discusses that every C program has the following general structure: comments, preprocessing commands, global declarations, the main function, local declarations within main, executable statements, and user-defined functions. It also summarizes some key elements of C including data types, variables, constants, operators, and tokens.
The document provides information about C language and its features. It discusses that C was developed by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 and is a general purpose programming language well suited for business and scientific applications. It also summarizes the basic structure of a C program and describes various C language components like data types, operators, and conditional statements.
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses that C is a general purpose, structured programming language that resembles algebraic expressions and contains keywords like if, else, for, do and while. C can be used for both systems and applications programming due to its flexibility. The document then discusses the structure of a C program, which consists of functions like main that contain statements grouped into blocks. It also covers C language components like data types, constants, variables and keywords. An example program that calculates the area of a circle is provided to demonstrate basic C syntax and components. Finally, conditional statements like if, if else, else if and switch that allow program flow control are introduced.
The document provides information about C programming language and its features. It discusses the basic structure of a C program which includes documentation, link, definition, global declaration, main function, and sub-program sections. It also describes the four steps to execute a C program: create, compile, link, and execute. Different forms of the main statement in C are discussed including main(), main(void), int main(), void main(), void main(void), and int main(void).
C is a general purpose programming language developed in the 1970s. It has features like control structures, looping statements, and arrays that make it well-suited for business and scientific applications. A C program executes in four steps - creating the program, compiling it, linking it to libraries, and executing the final executable file. C has keywords, variables, data types, operators, and conditional statements that allow for structured programming and control flow.
The document describes the unique features of the C++ and PHP programming languages. It discusses the history of C++, which was created by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 by adding object-oriented programming capabilities to the C language. Some key features of C++ include performance, low-level hardware interaction capabilities, powerful abstractions like generic code, and support for multiple programming paradigms like object-oriented, imperative, functional and logic programming. The document also provides examples of code written in C++ to illustrate various programming concepts.
The document discusses the steps involved in executing a program written in language L. These steps include translation, linking, relocation, and loading. The translator outputs an object module, which contains program code, relocation tables, and linking tables. The linker processes multiple object modules, relocating addresses and resolving external references to produce an executable binary program. It builds a name table containing symbols and their loaded addresses. This allows the linker to modify address operands to point to the correct memory locations for program execution.
This document discusses nested macros in system programming. It defines a macro as a unit of program specification that allows code expansion. A macro can contain a call to another macro, known as a nested macro call. Nested macro calls are expanded following the LIFO (last-in-first-out) rule, where the innermost macro call is expanded first. The document provides an example of a nested macro call in C code and how the macros would expand to generate the final code.
The document discusses the C programming language and data structures. It covers the basic structure of C programs, data types, operators, control flow statements, arrays, strings, functions, pointers, structures, unions and file I/O. The chapters are outlined and key concepts like algorithms, flowcharts and program development steps are explained in detail. The history and evolution of C language is presented along with its features, applications and importance. A simple C program example is also provided and analyzed.
Here is the class Book with the requested attributes and member functions:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Book {
private:
string title;
string author;
string publisher;
float price;
public:
Book() {
title = "No title";
author = "No author";
publisher = "No publisher";
price = 0.0;
}
void display_data() {
cout << "Title: " << title << endl;
cout << "Author: " << author << endl;
cout << "Publisher: " << publisher << endl;
cout << "Price: " << price << endl;
}
This document discusses macros in system programming. It defines a macro as a unit of specification for program generation through expansion. A macro definition consists of a macro prototype statement, model statements, and preprocessor statements. A macro is called by writing its name in an assembly statement's mnemonic field along with actual parameters. During macro expansion, the macro call statement is replaced by a sequence of assembly code generated from the model statements with formal parameters replaced by actual parameters. There are two types of expansions - lexical expansion replaces character strings, while semantic expansion can generate different code depending on parameter usage. An example demonstrates defining, calling, and expanding a simple macro in C.
File Operation such as
Reading the file content
Writing the content to the file
Copying the content from one file to another file
Counting the number of character, words and lines of the file
The document discusses the C programming language. It states that C was created by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in 1972 to develop the UNIX operating system. It became more widely used after Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first description of C in 1978. C is a general-purpose, high-level language that produces efficient, low-level code and can be compiled on many platforms. It is widely used to develop operating systems, compilers, databases and other systems programs.
The document discusses the two-pass approach for compiler construction. The first pass analyzes the source code and generates an intermediate representation (IR) including symbol tables. The second pass analyzes the IR to perform code synthesis for the target program. The front end performs lexical, syntax and semantic analysis to build the IR. The back end performs memory allocation and code generation based on the target architecture.
This document provides 50 interview questions on C programming language organized into 5 chapters: Variables & Control Flow, Operators, Constants & Structures, Functions, Pointers, and Programs. It aims to help both freshers and experienced programmers quickly brush up on basic C concepts commonly asked during job interviews at top companies. Each question is accompanied by a detailed answer along with code examples where applicable. Feedback is welcomed to be sent to the publisher.
The document discusses the design and implementation of the second pass of a two-pass assembler. It explains that a two-pass assembler handles forward references easily by building a symbol table in the first pass and then using it to synthesize the target program in the second pass. The first pass constructs an intermediate representation using the symbol table, which the second pass then processes to generate the target code. The algorithm for the second pass is described, which involves processing the intermediate representation and writing the target code to an output file.
The document provides an overview of the C programming language, including its history, features, basic structure, and how to compile a C program. C was developed in the 1970s and became widely popular due to its reliability, simplicity, and ability to create efficient and fast programs. It combines high-level and low-level language features. The basic structure of a C program includes documentation, include, define, and main sections along with function definitions. Compiling a C program generates machine-readable binary code from the source code using a compiler.
The document provides information about C programming language. It was prepared by Chetan Thapa Magar of Brightland Higher Secondary College. C was created by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 and draws concepts from earlier languages like BCPL and B. C is portable, efficient, structured, and a middle-level language well-suited for system and application programming. The document discusses C's history, elements, data types, operators, control structures like loops and decisions, and provides some example programs.
The document provides an introduction to the C programming language including:
- The C development environment and how a program is compiled from source code to executable code
- A simple "Hello World" example program
- Key elements of a C program like comments, preprocessor directives, data types, and basic functions like printf()
- Details on tokens, variables, statements, and basic data types and functions in C
This document summarizes key concepts from an introduction to C++ programming chapter, including:
- The main parts of a C++ program are comments, preprocessor directives, the main() function, and statements.
- Variables are used to store and manipulate data in a program. Variables are declared with a name and type before use.
- Arithmetic operators allow performing calculations in C++ programs. Expressions follow order of operations rules.
- Input and output streams allow getting user input and displaying output to the screen.
The document provides an overview of the C standard library. It includes a table listing common C standard library header files and briefly describing their purpose, such as <stdio.h> for input/output functions and <stdlib.h> for memory allocation and process control. The C standard library contains functions for tasks like string manipulation, mathematics, random numbers, memory management and more. It provides a standard library that is common across C implementations.
C# (pronounced “see sharp” or “C Sharp”) is one of many .NET programming languages. It is object-oriented and allows you to build reusable components for a wide variety of application types Microsoft introduced C# on June 26th, 2000 and it became a v1.0 product on Feb 13th 2002
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses the basic structure of C programs, including the main function, use of comments, and variable declaration. It also covers the four main data types (integer, float, double, character), and how variables can be initialized and assigned values. The document demonstrates basic input/output using printf statements and formatting specifiers.
The document provides an introduction to the C programming language, including its history, features, character sets, tokens, data types, operators, and the basic structure of a C program. It discusses key concepts such as variables, constants, comments, functions, input/output, and how to compile and execute a C program.
The document discusses the design and implementation of the first pass of a two-pass assembler. It explains that the first pass separates symbols, mnemonics, opcodes and operands, builds a symbol table, performs location counter processing, and constructs an intermediate representation for use by the second pass. This includes entering symbols into the symbol table with their addresses, allocating memory for literals, and generating intermediate code consisting of operation codes, symbols, and literals. The example shows the symbol table, literal table, and intermediate code generated by the first pass for a sample assembly program.
The document discusses language processor development tools (LPDTs) like LEX and YACC that are used to generate the analysis phase of a compiler. LEX is a lexical analyzer generator that takes a specification of lexical units and actions to produce a scanner. YACC is a parser generator that takes a grammar specification and actions to produce a parser. These tools generate C programs for scanning and parsing along with semantic actions. An example LEX program is provided to recognize keywords, identifiers, numbers and operators in an input stream.
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses that C was developed in 1972 and explains some key concepts in C including data types, variables, constants, and functions. It also demonstrates a simple C program to print text and explains how C code is compiled and executed.
This document discusses how to build an effective Boolean search string to find resumes online. It explains that a good search string has three key elements: identifying resume pages using terms like "resume", "CV", or "bio" in titles or URLs; eliminating non-resume pages using words like "job" or "apply"; and specifying job requirements. An example search string is provided that searches for security software engineer resumes matching terms for the role, companies, programming languages, and filters out non-resume pages. Building an optimized Boolean search string is the key to successful results from internet searches.
The document provides a summary of Timothy Betts' career experience as an independent software developer, including 23 years of experience in programming languages, databases, and operating systems. It lists his address, contact information, education and training background, and provides details of various contracting roles he has held over his career in software development.
The document discusses the C programming language and data structures. It covers the basic structure of C programs, data types, operators, control flow statements, arrays, strings, functions, pointers, structures, unions and file I/O. The chapters are outlined and key concepts like algorithms, flowcharts and program development steps are explained in detail. The history and evolution of C language is presented along with its features, applications and importance. A simple C program example is also provided and analyzed.
Here is the class Book with the requested attributes and member functions:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Book {
private:
string title;
string author;
string publisher;
float price;
public:
Book() {
title = "No title";
author = "No author";
publisher = "No publisher";
price = 0.0;
}
void display_data() {
cout << "Title: " << title << endl;
cout << "Author: " << author << endl;
cout << "Publisher: " << publisher << endl;
cout << "Price: " << price << endl;
}
This document discusses macros in system programming. It defines a macro as a unit of specification for program generation through expansion. A macro definition consists of a macro prototype statement, model statements, and preprocessor statements. A macro is called by writing its name in an assembly statement's mnemonic field along with actual parameters. During macro expansion, the macro call statement is replaced by a sequence of assembly code generated from the model statements with formal parameters replaced by actual parameters. There are two types of expansions - lexical expansion replaces character strings, while semantic expansion can generate different code depending on parameter usage. An example demonstrates defining, calling, and expanding a simple macro in C.
File Operation such as
Reading the file content
Writing the content to the file
Copying the content from one file to another file
Counting the number of character, words and lines of the file
The document discusses the C programming language. It states that C was created by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs in 1972 to develop the UNIX operating system. It became more widely used after Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first description of C in 1978. C is a general-purpose, high-level language that produces efficient, low-level code and can be compiled on many platforms. It is widely used to develop operating systems, compilers, databases and other systems programs.
The document discusses the two-pass approach for compiler construction. The first pass analyzes the source code and generates an intermediate representation (IR) including symbol tables. The second pass analyzes the IR to perform code synthesis for the target program. The front end performs lexical, syntax and semantic analysis to build the IR. The back end performs memory allocation and code generation based on the target architecture.
This document provides 50 interview questions on C programming language organized into 5 chapters: Variables & Control Flow, Operators, Constants & Structures, Functions, Pointers, and Programs. It aims to help both freshers and experienced programmers quickly brush up on basic C concepts commonly asked during job interviews at top companies. Each question is accompanied by a detailed answer along with code examples where applicable. Feedback is welcomed to be sent to the publisher.
The document discusses the design and implementation of the second pass of a two-pass assembler. It explains that a two-pass assembler handles forward references easily by building a symbol table in the first pass and then using it to synthesize the target program in the second pass. The first pass constructs an intermediate representation using the symbol table, which the second pass then processes to generate the target code. The algorithm for the second pass is described, which involves processing the intermediate representation and writing the target code to an output file.
The document provides an overview of the C programming language, including its history, features, basic structure, and how to compile a C program. C was developed in the 1970s and became widely popular due to its reliability, simplicity, and ability to create efficient and fast programs. It combines high-level and low-level language features. The basic structure of a C program includes documentation, include, define, and main sections along with function definitions. Compiling a C program generates machine-readable binary code from the source code using a compiler.
The document provides information about C programming language. It was prepared by Chetan Thapa Magar of Brightland Higher Secondary College. C was created by Dennis Ritchie in 1972 and draws concepts from earlier languages like BCPL and B. C is portable, efficient, structured, and a middle-level language well-suited for system and application programming. The document discusses C's history, elements, data types, operators, control structures like loops and decisions, and provides some example programs.
The document provides an introduction to the C programming language including:
- The C development environment and how a program is compiled from source code to executable code
- A simple "Hello World" example program
- Key elements of a C program like comments, preprocessor directives, data types, and basic functions like printf()
- Details on tokens, variables, statements, and basic data types and functions in C
This document summarizes key concepts from an introduction to C++ programming chapter, including:
- The main parts of a C++ program are comments, preprocessor directives, the main() function, and statements.
- Variables are used to store and manipulate data in a program. Variables are declared with a name and type before use.
- Arithmetic operators allow performing calculations in C++ programs. Expressions follow order of operations rules.
- Input and output streams allow getting user input and displaying output to the screen.
The document provides an overview of the C standard library. It includes a table listing common C standard library header files and briefly describing their purpose, such as <stdio.h> for input/output functions and <stdlib.h> for memory allocation and process control. The C standard library contains functions for tasks like string manipulation, mathematics, random numbers, memory management and more. It provides a standard library that is common across C implementations.
C# (pronounced “see sharp” or “C Sharp”) is one of many .NET programming languages. It is object-oriented and allows you to build reusable components for a wide variety of application types Microsoft introduced C# on June 26th, 2000 and it became a v1.0 product on Feb 13th 2002
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses the basic structure of C programs, including the main function, use of comments, and variable declaration. It also covers the four main data types (integer, float, double, character), and how variables can be initialized and assigned values. The document demonstrates basic input/output using printf statements and formatting specifiers.
The document provides an introduction to the C programming language, including its history, features, character sets, tokens, data types, operators, and the basic structure of a C program. It discusses key concepts such as variables, constants, comments, functions, input/output, and how to compile and execute a C program.
The document discusses the design and implementation of the first pass of a two-pass assembler. It explains that the first pass separates symbols, mnemonics, opcodes and operands, builds a symbol table, performs location counter processing, and constructs an intermediate representation for use by the second pass. This includes entering symbols into the symbol table with their addresses, allocating memory for literals, and generating intermediate code consisting of operation codes, symbols, and literals. The example shows the symbol table, literal table, and intermediate code generated by the first pass for a sample assembly program.
The document discusses language processor development tools (LPDTs) like LEX and YACC that are used to generate the analysis phase of a compiler. LEX is a lexical analyzer generator that takes a specification of lexical units and actions to produce a scanner. YACC is a parser generator that takes a grammar specification and actions to produce a parser. These tools generate C programs for scanning and parsing along with semantic actions. An example LEX program is provided to recognize keywords, identifiers, numbers and operators in an input stream.
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses that C was developed in 1972 and explains some key concepts in C including data types, variables, constants, and functions. It also demonstrates a simple C program to print text and explains how C code is compiled and executed.
This document discusses how to build an effective Boolean search string to find resumes online. It explains that a good search string has three key elements: identifying resume pages using terms like "resume", "CV", or "bio" in titles or URLs; eliminating non-resume pages using words like "job" or "apply"; and specifying job requirements. An example search string is provided that searches for security software engineer resumes matching terms for the role, companies, programming languages, and filters out non-resume pages. Building an optimized Boolean search string is the key to successful results from internet searches.
The document provides a summary of Timothy Betts' career experience as an independent software developer, including 23 years of experience in programming languages, databases, and operating systems. It lists his address, contact information, education and training background, and provides details of various contracting roles he has held over his career in software development.
Paulo Marcio Bombonatti de Castro is a 48-year-old Brazilian professional with over 20 years of experience in project management, business analysis, and strategic planning. He holds degrees in business administration and information technology as well as certifications in project management, scrum master, and business analysis. Currently, he works as a consultant and co-founder of ZimmSolution, a drone technology startup.
The candidate has over 5 years of experience as a Software Engineer and Business Analyst. She has strong skills in PL/SQL, Oracle Apps, .NET frameworks, and SharePoint. She has experience managing projects for clients like Cisco, developing solutions for requirements gathering, order management, and document management. The candidate holds a post-graduate diploma in Marketing Management and undergraduate degree in Computer Engineering.
The document provides a summary of an individual's qualifications including education, work experience, skills, projects, and interests. Some key points:
- The individual has an MBA in Operations from Symbiosis International University and a B.E. in Electronics & Telecommunication.
- Work experience includes roles as a Business Analyst at HCL Technologies and as an ECMP Consultant. Responsibilities included requirements gathering, documentation, knowledge management, and functional consulting.
- Technical skills include SharePoint 2010/2013, IBM FileNet, EMC Documentum, and Oracle 11g.
- Notable projects include knowledge management portals using SharePoint and vendor evaluations for enterprise content management tools.
This document outlines the aims, design, objectives, and units of a Visual C++ programming course. The aims are to review object-oriented design and impart skills in developing VC++ applications using fundamental C++ features like classes, objects, inheritance, and encapsulation. The course is divided into units that cover developing applications using the VC++ IDE, object-oriented programming concepts, and Visual C++ basics like data types, expressions, and control structures. Key concepts like classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation, and abstraction are defined. The document provides details on theory and practical lessons for each unit.
Vishnu has over 3 years of experience developing solutions using Microsoft technologies like SharePoint 2013, ASP.NET, and C#. He has experience with app development, workflows, web parts, and OOTB features. Some of his project experience includes developing an IKS monitoring tool for Mercedes Benz using Nintex workflows, setting up an app development environment and creating provider hosted and SharePoint apps for Mercedes Benz, and building a procurement management system for a product development company. He is looking for new opportunities as a SharePoint or software developer.
Prasad Hirlikar is a fullstack software engineer with experience developing and maintaining web applications using technologies like Java, Python, C++, JavaScript, HTML5, CSS3, PHP, AngularJS, NodeJS, MySQL, MongoDB, and more. He has over 3 years of experience as a lead developer and research analyst, where he has successfully designed and implemented flexible solutions. He holds a Master's degree in Computer Science from Indiana University and a Bachelor's degree in Computer Engineering from the University of Mumbai.
This document is a resume for Julio Xavier. It summarizes his professional experience, education, skills, and qualifications. He has worked as a consultant, web developer, and systems engineer for various companies. He holds a Master's degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the University of Porto. His technical skills include programming languages like HTML, CSS, AngularJS, and databases. He is also proficient in operating systems, development tools, and technical software.
Scott Muller is seeking a position as a Business Intelligence Architect with over 10 years of experience in business intelligence development. He has skills in SQL Server, SharePoint, Power BI, data modeling, and complex problem solving. His experience includes roles as a BI Architect, developer, project manager, and technical lead. He holds a Bachelor's degree in Geography from Cal Poly Pomona.
C++ (pronounced "see plus plus") is a computer programming language based on C. It was created for writing programs for many different purposes. In the 1990s, C++ became one of the most used programming languages in the world.
The C++ programming language was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in the 1980s, and was originally named "C with classes". The language was planned as an improvement on the C programming language, adding features based on object-oriented programming. Step by step, a lot of advanced features were added to the language, like operator overloading, exception handling and templates.
Hidayathulla P P has over 7 years of experience in IT project management roles. He currently works as a PMO lead managing a team of 7 PMOs. He has extensive experience implementing and maintaining various SAP modules and mobile application projects. Some of his key responsibilities include resource planning, budget management, status reporting, change management, and maintaining project documentation on SharePoint. He is proficient in tools like MS Project, Clarity PPM, and ServiceNow.
This document contains the resume of Venkat Kallagunta, an experienced software testing professional with over 7 years of experience in quality assurance. He has expertise in system testing, integration testing, and end-to-end testing of web applications, iPad applications, and web services. Some of his responsibilities include requirements gathering, test case design, defect tracking, reporting, and ensuring projects are delivered on time. He has worked on various projects in domains such as insurance, media, and retail energy for clients like Direct Energy.
The document provides an introduction to the basic structure of C++ programs. It defines key elements such as comments, preprocessor directives, header files, the main function, and return statements. It also explains identifier naming rules and how to declare variables according to standards. Specifically, it states identifiers can include letters, digits and underscores but not special characters or spaces. Variables must be declared before use with a data type and name following the rules. The document is teaching the fundamentals of C++ programming syntax and structure.
The document provides an introduction to algorithms and key concepts related to algorithms such as definition, features, examples, flowcharts, pseudocode. It also discusses different types of programming languages from first to fifth generation. Key points of structured programming approach and introduction to C programming language are explained including data types, variables, constants, input/output functions, operators, type conversion etc.
The document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses the basic components of a C program including documentation, header files, definitions, global declarations, the main function, and subprograms. It also covers various C programming concepts such as data types, variables, constants, operators, and sample programs. The document is intended to teach students and professionals the fundamentals of C programming.
This document provides an introduction to C++ and covers 10 topics: 1) Object-oriented programming principles, 2) Classes and objects, 3) Functions, 4) Constructors and destructors, 5) Operator overloading and type conversion, 6) Inheritance, 7) Pointers, virtual functions and polymorphism, 8) Working with files, 9) Templates, and 10) Exception handling. Each topic is briefly described in 1-2 paragraphs with examples provided for some concepts like encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism, and exception handling. The document serves as a high-level overview of key C++ concepts and features.
Introduction to cpp language and all the required information relating to itPushkarNiroula1
C++ is an object-oriented programming language developed in the early 1980s as an extension of C with additional features like classes, inheritance, and function overloading. A simple C++ program prints a string to the screen using the cout output stream and iostream header. C++ programs typically contain functions, comments, and use operators like << for output and >> for input.
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This document provides an overview of C programming basics and features. It discusses problem solving techniques like algorithms, flowcharts, and pseudo codes. It then introduces C programming, highlighting its features like portability and support for data types. It describes the typical structure of a C program including preprocessor directives, global declarations, the main function, and subprograms. It also covers the compilation and linking process. Finally, it discusses key concepts like variables, identifiers, keywords, and integer, floating point, character, and string constants.
C is a widely used general-purpose programming language that can be used to develop complex software like operating systems and databases. It has four basic data types - integer, character, floating-point, and double floating-point. Constants are declared using the const keyword and cannot change value during program execution. Operators perform actions on operands like arithmetic, relational, logical, and assignment operations. Conditional statements and loops allow control flow and repeated execution of code. Header files contain function declarations and macro definitions included using the #include directive. Structures group related variables under a single name. Functions perform specific tasks. Strings are arrays of characters terminated by a null character. C is a mid-level language providing both low-level and high
C is a widely used general-purpose programming language that can be used to develop complex software like operating systems and databases. It supports basic data types like integers, characters, and floating-point values. Constants are declared using the const keyword and cannot change value during program execution. C includes various operators like arithmetic, relational, logical, and bitwise operators to perform operations. Conditional statements and loops allow for control flow and repeated execution of code. Header files contain function declarations and macro definitions that can be included using the #include directive. Structures group related data types under a single name. Functions are blocks of code that perform tasks. Strings are arrays of characters terminated by a null character.
The C++ Programming Language is basically an extension of the C Programming Language. The C Programming language was developed from 1969-1973 at Bell labs, at the same time the UNIX operating system was being developed there. C was a direct descendant of the language B, which was developed by Ken Thompson as a systems programming language for the fledgling UNIX operating system. B, in turn, descended from the language BCPL which was designed in the 1960s by Martin Richards while at MIT.
In 1971 Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs extended the B language (by adding types) into what he called NB, for "New B". Ritchie credits some of his changes to language constructs found in Algol68, although he states "although it [the type scheme], perhaps, did not emerge in a form that Algol's adherents would approve of" After restructuring the language and rewriting the compiler for B, Ritchie gave his new language a name: "C".
C is a general-purpose programming language developed at Bell Labs in the 1970s. It discusses the basics of C programming, including its history, structure, keywords, variables, data types, and provides an example "Hello World" program. The document provides an overview of the key elements of C for a beginner programmer to understand how to get started with C.
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It outlines the objectives of learning C which include an introduction to the basics of C like its history, structure of C programs, files used, compiling, keywords, data types, variables, constants, and comments. It then goes on to explain each of these concepts in more detail across multiple slides. The document is intended to teach first year undergraduate computer science students about the fundamental aspects of C.
C++ Langauage Training in Ambala ! BATRA COMPUTER CENTREjatin batra
C++ is a middle-level programming language developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs. It runs on a variety of platforms such as Windows, Mac OS, and various versions of UNIX. C++ builds on C by adding classes, objects, inheritance, templates and exceptions to support object-oriented programming.
C is an imperative, procedural language in the ALGOL tradition. It has a static type system. In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines (also called "functions", though not in the sense of functional programming). Function parameters are passed by value, although arrays are passed as pointers, i.e. the address of the first item in the array. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointers to the thing being referenced.
C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement separator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements.
The C language also exhibits the following characteristics:
The language has a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of control flow primitives: if/else, for, do/while, while, and switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.
It has a large number of arithmetic, bitwise, and logic operators: +,+=,++,&,||, etc.
More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement.
The document provides an introduction to computer programming and the C++ programming language. It discusses what a computer program is, different types of programs, and the process of computer programming. It then covers key concepts in C++ programming including data types, variables, constants, input/output, and basic program structure. The document is intended to teach programming fundamentals and provide an overview of C++ for beginners.
This document provides an introduction and overview of the C programming language. It discusses what a computer is and how programming languages work. It introduces machine language and high-level languages like C. Key aspects of C are explained, including data types, variables, operators, functions, and basic syntax. Examples of simple C programs are provided.
This document provides an introduction to the C programming language. It discusses that C was created to develop the UNIX operating system and is widely used for systems programming. The document then covers C program structure, tokens, basic syntax, identifiers, keywords, whitespace, data types including integer and floating point types, variables, and variable scope and storage duration. It provides examples of declaring, defining, initializing and using different variables in a sample C program.
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This document provides an introduction and overview of the basics of C programming language. It discusses the following key topics in 3 or less sentences each:
- Introduction to programming and computer languages.
- Introduction to C programming, its history, uses, and why it is widely used.
- Program structure in C, including main functions, printf statements, comments, and return values.
- Basic syntax rules in C including semicolons, comments, identifiers, and whitespace.
- Common data types in C like char, int, float, and double and their purposes.
- How variables are named, defined through data type declaration, and initialized in C code.
- Common operators in
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular and widely used programming language today. It is well-suited for systems programming and embedded systems due to its portability, efficiency, and ability to access hardware. A C program consists of functions written in a logical sequence to perform tasks. The main function is the starting point and every program must contain one. C programs are compiled in two steps - preprocessing and compilation - to create an executable binary file.
C was developed in the 1970s and is a popular programming language used widely for systems programming and other applications. The document discusses the history and characteristics of C, the structure of C programs including functions and files used, basic syntax elements like variables, data types, constants and comments. It also covers compiling and executing C programs.
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1. INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
OPERATORS
5-1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you will be able to understand :
Introduction and Feature of C++
Character and Token
Precedence and Associativity
Program Structure
Data Types and Operators
Variables and Their Scope
Expressions
5.1. INTRODUCTION OF C++
C++ is an object-oriented programming language. It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup
at AT and T Bell Laboratories USA, in the early 1980’s. Stroustrup, an admirer of
Simula67 and a strong supporter of C wanted to combine the best of both the languages
and create a more powerful language that could support object-oriented programming
features and still retain the power and elegance of C. The result was C++.
L
C++ is an object-oriented computer language used in the development
of enterprise and commercial applications.
5.1.1. Feature of C++. C++ is a superset of the ‘C’ programming language. It contain
following feature :
1. Object-oriented. The object-oriented features in C++ allow programmers to build
large programs with clarity, extensibility and ease of maintenance incorporating the spirit
and efficiency of C. The most important facilities that C++ adds on to C are classes,
inheritance, function overloading and operator overloading.
2. Classes. C++ support the concept of classes. A class is a user defined type. Classes
provide data hiding, initialization of data, dynamic typing, user controlled memory
2. 5-2
INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
OPERATORS
management. Classes extend the built-in capabilities of C++ able you in representing
and solving complex, real-world problems. A class is an organization of data and functions
which operate on them. Data structures are called data members and the functions are
called member functions, the combination of data members and member functions
constitute a data object or simply an object.
3. Data Abstractions. In C++, classes use the concepts of abstraction and are define
as a list of abstract attributes such as size, height, width, cost and methods that operate
on these attributes.
4. Inheritance. The mechanism of deriving a new class form a base class is called
inheritance. C++ support the feature of inheritance. It is the capability of one of the thing
to inherit capabilities or properties from another class.
5. Polymorphism. Polymorphism is one of the C++ polymorphism is the concept that
supports the capability of an object of class to behave differently in response to a message
action.
6. Portability. C++ and its standard libraries are designed for portability. The current
implementation will run on most systems that support C. C libraries can be used from a
C++ program, and most tools that support programming in C can be used with C++.
7. Versatile. C++ is a versatile language for handling very large programs. It is suitable
for virtually any programming task including development of editors, compilers, databases,
communication systems and any complex real-life application systems.
5.2. CHARACTER SET
C++ programs are a collection of character set, keywords, identifiers, literals, operators
and white space etc.
L
Character set is valid set of characters. A character set represent any
letter, digit or any other sign.
C++ has the following character set:
Letter
A-Z and a-z.
Digits
0 to 9.
Special Symbols
+,-,/,,(),{},[],=,!=<,>,"",;,&,$,?,-<=,>=,% etc and
other characters.
White space characters Space, horizontal, vertical, tab, newline
5.3. TOKEN
In a passage of text, individual words and punctuation marks are called token or lexical
elements.
L
The smallest individual unit of a C++ program is known as a token or a
lexical unit.
3. INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
5-3
OPERATORS
C++ has following token:
1. Keywords.
2. Identifier.
3. Literals.
4. Separators.
5. Operators.
1. Keywords. In C++, Keywords are the reserved word that have special meaning to
the language compiler. We cannot use any of the following as identifiers in your programs.
L
Keywords are the reserved word that have special to the language
compiler they cannot use as identifiers in your program.
The C++ programming contain following keywords as shown in Table 5.1:
Table 5.1 C++ Keywords
asm
auto
bad_cast
bad_typeid
bool
break
case
catch
char
class
const
const_cast
continue
default
delete
do
double
dynamic_cast
else
enum
except
explicit
extern
false
finally
float
for
friend
goto
if
inline
int
long
mutable
namespace
new
operator
private
protected
public
register
reinterpret_cast
return
short
signed
sizeof
static
static_cast
unsigned
struct
switch
template
this
throw
true
try
type_info
typedef
typeid
typename
union
unsigned
using
virtual
void
volatile
wchar_t
while
2. Identifiers. An identifier may be in any sequence of uppercase and lowercase letters,
numbers or underscore.
• They must not begin with number.
• C++ is case sensitive programming language, so A is different identifier then a.
4. 5-4
INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
L
AND
OPERATORS
Identifiers are used to represents the names of classes, functions and
variables constant, etc. in C++.
Some of the example of identifier is as following:
IndiaCon
number
value4
$my
this_is_val
Not/right
this is my var
Invalid identifier names include:
2Val
number-val
3. Constant. A constant value in C++ is created by using a literal.
L
Constants are data items that never change the value during the execution
of program.
C++ allows several kinds of literals:
Integer Constant:
1000, 45, 32, 34, -12, -45.
Character Constant:
‘x’, ‘a’, ‘v’, ‘p’
Floating Constant:
99.8,
String Constant:
“Hello C++”,“GGGC Bhopal”
Escape Sequences Constant:
An escape can be included in double-quotes as
“n”, or as part of a string.
67.567, 456.78, -908.98, 987.23
4. Separators. In C++ there are some characters that are used as separators. For
Example, one of the most important separators in C++ is parentheses, which is used to
contain the list of parameters in functions definition and method invocation. The table
5.2 shown the different separators name, symbol used, and their use in C++ technology.
Table 5.2 Separators in C++
Symbol
Separator Name Descriptions
;
Semi-colon
Used to terminates the C++ Statements.
()
Parentheses
Represent properties of function parameters.
{}
Braces
Used to define a block of code for classes, functions,
and scopes.
[]
Bracket
Used to declare array types.
,
Comma
Used for the separation of identifier in C++.
.
Dot
Used to separate package name form sub packages
name and classes.
=
Equal to sign.
Used for variable initializations.
5. INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
5-5
OPERATORS
5. Operators. Operators are special symbols that perform mathematical or logical
operations on one, two, or three operands, and then return a result. For example :
+, –, *, ÷ etc.
5.4. PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY
Precedence and Associativity Rules together determine in what order the variables are
evaluated in an expression. The Table 5.3 describes Precedence and Associativity rules
of variable.
Table 5.3 Precedence and Associativity rules for variables
Operator Type
Operators
Postfix Operators
x++, x--
Unary prefix operators
Associativity
Unary postfix increment and
decrement operators associate
left to right, other unary operators
associate right to left
++x ,--x ,+x ,-x ~ ,!
Right to left
*, / ,%
Left to right
+ ,-
Left to right
Shift
<< ,>>
Left to right
Equality
= =, !=
Left to right
Bitwise/Logical AND
&
Left to right
Bitwise/Logical XOR
^
Left to right
Bitwise/Logical OR
|
Left to right
&&
Left to right
Conditional OR
||
Left to right
Conditional
?:
Right to left
Assignment
= ,+= ,-=, *= ,/= ,%= ,
<<= ,>>=, &= ,^= |=
Right to left
Multiplicative
Additive
Conditional AND
6. 5-6
INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
OPERATORS
5.5. PROGRAM STRUCTURE
In C++, the structure of program looks like this:
// This Program is Written By Pawan Thakur // comment section
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
// preprocessor directives
void main ()
// Main function
{
clrscr();
cout<<"Hello, world."<<endl;
// body of Main function
getch();
}
// End of Main function
Output:
Hello, world.
1. Comment section. The programmer can use comment section for short explanations
of the source code itself or other comment. In above program the comment section
display the following comment:
// This Program is Written By Pawan Thakur
// comment section
2. Preprocessor directive. Lines beginning with a hash sign (#) are directives for the
preprocessor. They are not regular code lines with expressions but indications for the
compiler's preprocessor. For Ex.
#include<iostream.h>
In this case the first directive #include <iostream.h> tells the preprocessor to include the
iostream.h standard file.
3. Main function definition. The main function is the point by where all C++ programs
start their execution, independently of its location within the source code. It is essential
that all C++ programs have a main function.
void main()
{
------------------}
body of main
This line corresponds to the beginning of the definition of the main function. The word
main is followed in the code by a pair of parentheses (). That is because it is a function.
4. Body of main. It contains the set of statements. A statement is a simple or compound
expression that can actually produce some effect. C++ uses curly-braces {} to group
things together.
cout represents the standard output stream in C++, and the meaning of the entire statement
is to insert a sequence of characters into the standard output stream.
7. INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
OPERATORS
5-7
cout<<"Hello, world."<<endl;
In this case, Hello World is the sequence of characters which display on screen. The
statement ends with a semicolon character (;). This character is used to mark the end of
the statement and in fact it must be included at the end of all expression statements in all
C++ programs.
5.6. DATA TYPES
There are five basic data type in C++: char, int, float, double and void. All other data type
in C++ is based upon on of these basic data types. Such data types are called derived
data types.
L
Data type specifies the size and type of values that can stored in computer
memory.
C++ support flowing data types :
1. Basic data type.
2. User defined data type.
3. Derived data type.
Data types in C++ under various categories are shown in Fig. 5.1
Fig. 5.1. Data Type in C++.
8. 5-8
INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
OPERATORS
5.6.1. Basic data type
Basic data types are also called fundamental or built in data type. The built data types in
C++ are categorized in to numeric and non-numeric. In further, numeric data type are of
two types:
1. Integer Type
2. Floating - Point
1. Integer Types. C++ supports the integer data type as they are short, int and long.
(a) Short Integers. The smallest integer you can store in a word is declared with the
short keyword followed by a name. Because a short integer is signed by default, it can
store a value that ranges from -32768 to 32767. The program 5.1 displays the example
short integer.
Program 5.1. Example of Short Integer Data Type
#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
short number1, number2;
cout << "Enter a number between -32768 and 32767: ";
cin >> number1;
cout << "Enter another number: ";
cin >> number2;
cout << "nThe numbers you entered weren";
cout << "tNumber 1: " << number1 << "n";
cout << "tNumber 2: " << number2 << "n";
getch();
}
Output:
(b) Integers. In C++, an integer is variable whose values are between
2,147,483,648 and 2,147,484,647. The value is also said to fit in a 32-bit range. The
program 5.2 displays the example integer data type.
9. INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
OPERATORS
5-9
Program 5.2. Example of Integer Data Type
#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int coordX, coordY, coordZ;
cout << "Enter the coordinates of point An";
cout << "Horizontal X = ";
cin >> coordX;
cout << "Vertical Y = ";
cin >> coordY;
cout << "Depth Z = ";
cin >> coordZ;
cout << "nOn a cartesian system, point A is located at";
cout << "ntX = " << coordX;
cout << "ntY = " << coordY;
cout << "ntZ = " << coordZ;
getch();
}
Output-:
(c) Long Integers. An integer variable whose value should be positive can also be
declared with the long keyword. The long keyword is a positive 32-bit integer whose
value ranges from 0 to 4,294,967,295. The program 5.3 displays the example integer
data type.
Program 5.3. Example of Long Integer Data Type
#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
long UArea;
unsigned long Population;
cout << "What is the area of the U? ";
cin >> UArea;
cout << "What is the population of the U? ";
cin >> Population;
cout << "nCharacteristics of the U";
10. 5-10
INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
AND
OPERATORS
cout << "ntArea = " << UArea<< "ntPopulation = "
<< Population;
getch();
}
Output-:
2. Floating - Point. The integers we have used so far have the main limitation of not
allowing decimal values. C++ provides floating identifier values that would solve this
problem. Floating point is another type of integer, used to hold numbers containing decimal
parts such as 34.456 and -12.780, 15.89 etc. Float and Double are two types of floating
point variables in C++.
(a) Float. The most fundamental floating variable is declared with the float keyword.
The value typically fits in 32 bits (4 bytes). To declare a variable that would hold decimal
values we can use the float data type. The program 5.4 displays the example of float
data type.
Program 5.4. Example of Float Data Type
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
float side, perimeter, area;
cout<<"Enter the side of the square: ";
cin>>side;
perimeter = side * 4;
area = side * side;
cout<<"Characteristics of the square:";
cout<<"nSide: "<<side;
cout<<"nPerimeter: "<<perimeter;
cout<<"nArea: "<<area;
getch();
}
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Output-:
(b) Double. When a variable is larger than the float we can use double identifier. The
double-precision identifier is an 8 Byte. The program 5.5 displays the example of double
data type.
Program 5.5. Example of Double Data Type
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
double side, perimeter, area;
cout<<"Enter the side of the square: ";
cin>>side;
perimeter = side * 4;
area = side * side;
cout<<"Characteristics of the square:";
cout<<"nSide: "<<side;
cout<<"nPerimeter: "<<perimeter;
cout<<"nArea: "<<area;
getch();
}
Output :
3. Void. The void was introduce in ANSI C. It is use to specify the return type of function
when it is not returning any value and indicate and empty argument list to a function.
For example : void getsum (void) ;
5.6.2. Non-numeric data types
Non-numeric data types are of two kinds:
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(a) Character Type. C++ provide char data type, which is used to store character
value in computer memory. If the character is of a signed category we declare it as a
signed character. This type of variable would be an 8-bit integer whose value can range
from – 128 to + 127. The program 5.6 displays the example char data type.
Program 5.6. Char Data Type
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char Satisfaction, Answer;
signed char AgeCategory, size;
cout<<"From A to Z, enter a char : ";
cin>>Satisfaction;
cout<<"Age category(t=teen/a=Adult/s=Senior): ";
cin>>ageCategory;
cout<<"Are you drunk(y=Yes/n=No)? ";
cin>>answer;
cout<<"Enter your size(s=Small/m=Medium/l=Large): ";
cin>>size;
cout<<"nSatisfaction: "<<Satisfaction;
cout<<"nAge category: "<<AgeCategory;
cout<<"nYour answer: "<<Answer;
cout<<"nYour size: "<<Size;
getch();
}
Output-:
(b) Boolean Type. In C++, Boolean data type is used for logical values. It can have
only one value of two possible values, true or false. The program 5.7 displays the example
of boolean data type.
Program 5.7. Boolean Data Type
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
13. INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
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bool MachineIsWorking = true;
cout<<"Since this machine is working, its value is"
<<MachineIsWorking<<endl;
MachineIsWorking = false;
cout<<"The machine has stopped operating."
<<"Now its value is "<<MachineIsWorking<<endl;
getch();
}
5.6.3. User define data type. User defined data type are those data type which is
defined by user. C++ support following user defined data type :
(a) Class. A class is user define data type, a C++ program can have definition of
different classes. A class contains variables and functions. Variables are called instances
and functions are called method. Class is a template, which declare and define methods
that are called by the objects of the classes.
(b) Structure. A structure is a collection of different types of variables works under one
name, providing a convenient means of keeping related information. For example a
student record is a collection of rollno, name, class, marks, grade etc.
(c) Union. A union is a memory location that is shared by two or more different variables
at different times.
(d) Enumeration. An alternative method for naming integer constants is often convenient
then constant. This can be achieved by creating enumeration using keyword enum. For
example, enum{Start, Pause, Play}.
5.6.4. Derived data type. From the built in data types other data type can be derived by
using the declaration operations. C++ support following non-primitive derived data type:
(a) Arrays. An array is a derived data type. It is a container object that holds a fixed
number of values of a single type.
(b) Function. Function is a derived data type. The brief introduction of function is in 6
chapter.
(c) Pointer. Pointer is special type of variable which hold the address of another variable.
5.7. VARIABLES
A variable is a place to store information. A variable is a location in your computer’s
memory in which you can store a value and from which you can later retrieve that value.
L
Variable represents named storage locations, whose value can be
manipulated during the execution of program.
There are some rules for variables declaration in C++. The name of a variable:
(a) They starts with an underscore "_" or a letter, lowercase or uppercase, such as
a letter from a to z or from A to Z. Examples are Name, gender, _Students,
pRice.
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(b) They can include letters, underscore, or digits. Examples are: keyboard, Master,
Junction, Player1, total_grade, _Score_Side1.
(c) They can not include special characters such as !, %, ] or $.
(d) They can not include an empty space.
(e) They can not be any of the reserved words.
The syntax to declare a new variable is to write the specified of the desired data type
(like int, bool, float.) followed by a valid variable identifier. For example:
int a;
float mynumber;
These are two valid declarations of variables. The first one declares a variable of type
int with the identifier a. The second one declares a variable of type float with the identifier
mynumber. Once declared, the variables a and mynumber can be used within their
scope in the program. The program 5.8 displays the example of variables.
Program 5.8. Example of variables
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a, b;
int result;
a = 5;
b = 2;
a = a + 1;
result = a - b;
cout<<result;
getch();
}
5.7.1. Scope of variables
All the variables that we want to use in a program must have been declared with its type
specifier. We have declared that a, b, and result were of type int, in the previous code at
the beginning of the body of the main().
A variable can be either of global or local scope.
(a) Global variable. A global variable is a variable declared in the main body of the
source code, outside all functions. Global variables can be used anywhere in the code,
after its declaration.
(b) Local variable. A local variable is one declared within the body of a function or a
block. The scope of local variables is limited to the block enclosed in braces {} where
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they are declared. For example, if they are declared at the beginning of the body of a
function their scope is between its declaration point and the end of that function.
The Fig. 5.2 displays the scope of local and global variables.
Fig. 5.2. Scopes of Variables.
5.8. OPERATORS IN C++
C++ provides rich collections of operator. The operations being carried out on data are
represented by operators.
L
Operators are special symbols that perform mathematical or logical
operations on one, two, or three operands, and then return a result.
Let us discuss these operators in details.
1. Arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, /, % ). The five arithmetical operations are supported
by the C++ language, as shown in table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Arithmetic operators
Operator
Descriptions
+
addition or unary plus
-
subtraction or unary minus
*
multiplication
/
division
%
modulus or module division
The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are done by the
mathematical operators.
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2. Relational operators and equality. The equality and relational operators are used
if one operand is greater than, less than, equal to or not equal to another operand. The
Table 5.5 describes the equality and relational operators and their descriptions.
Table5.3 Equality and Relational operators
Operator
Descriptions
==
Equal to
!=
Not equal to
>
Greater than
>=
Greater than or equal to
<
Less than
<=
Less than or equal to
The program 5.9 displays the example of relational operators.
Program 5.9. Example of relational operator
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a=10, b=3;
if(a>b)
cout<<"A is Greater";
getch();
}
Note: Keep in mind that you must use "==", not "=", when testing if two primitive values
are equal.
3. Assignment operator (=). The assignment operator assigns a value to a variable.
For Example: a = 5;
This statement assigns the integer value 5 to the variable a. The program 5.10 displays
the example of assignment operator.
Program 5.10. Example of assignment operator
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a, b;
17. INTRODUCTION OF C++, DATA TYPES
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OPERATORS
a = 10;
b = 4;
a = b;
b = 7;
cout<<"a:";
cout<<a;
cout<<" b:";
cout<<b;
getch();
}
4. Increment and decrement operator (++, --). In C++, the increase operator (++)
and the decrease operator (--) used to increase or reduce by one the value stored in a
variable. They are equivalent to +=1 and to -=1, respectively. Thus:
c++;
c+=1;
c=c+1;
The above three statements are all equivalent in its functionality increase by one the
value of c.
A characteristic of this operator is that it can be used both as a prefix and as a suffix.
That means that it can be written either before the variable identifier (++a) or after it
(a++). Although in simple expressions like a++ or ++a both have exactly the same
meaning. But other expressions in which the result of the increase or decrease operation
is evaluated as a value in an outer expression they may have an important difference in
their meaning: Notice the difference in table 5.6:
Table 5.6 Increase and decrease operator
Example 1
Example 2
B=3;
A=++B;
// A contain 4, B contain 4
B=3;
A=B++;
// A contain 3, B contain 4
In above table Example 1, B is increased before its value is copied to A. While in
Example 2, the value of B is copied to A and then B is increased.
5. Logical operators ( !, &&, || ). The && (AND), || (OR) and | (NOT) operators
perform Conditional-AND, Conditional-OR and Conditional-NOT operations on two
Boolean expressions. For example:
((5 = = 5)&&(3 > 6))//evaluates to false (true && false)
((5 = = 5)||(3 > 6))//evaluates to true (true || false)
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6. Conditional operator (? :). The conditional operator evaluates an expression returning
a value if that expression is true and a different one if the expression is evaluated as
false. Its format is:
condition ? result1 : result2
If condition is true, the expression will return result1, if it is not true it will return
result2. The program 5.11 displays the example of conditional operators.
Program 5.11. Example of conditional operators
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main ()
{
clrscr();
int a,b,c;
a=2;
b=7;
c = (a>b) ? a : b;
cout << c;
getch();
}
In this example a is 2 and b is 7, the expression being evaluated (a>b) was not true, thus
the first value specified after the question mark was discarded in favor of the second
value (the one after the colon) which was b, with a value of 7.
7. Compound assignment (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=, >>=, <<=, &=,^=, |=).
When we want to modify the value of a variable by performing an operation on the value
currently stored in that variable we can use compound assignment. The program 5.12
displays the example of assignment operator.
Program 5.12. Example of compound assignment operator
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a, b=3;
a = b;
a+=2; // equivalent to a=a+2
cout<<a;
getch();
}
8. Bitwise operators ( &, |, ^, ~, <<, >> ). Bitwise operators modify variables
considering the bit patterns that represent the values they store as shown in Table 5.7.
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Table 5.7. Bitwise Operators
Operator
Equivalent
Description
&
AND
Bitwise AND
|
OR
Bitwise Inclusive OR
^
XOR
Bitwise Exclusive OR
~
NOT
Unary Complement
<<
SHL
Shift Left
>>
SHR
Shift Right
9. The size of() operator. This operator accepts one parameter, which can be either a
type or a variable itself and returns the size in bytes of that type or object:
a = sizeof(char);
This will assign the value 1 to a because char is a one-byte long type. The value returned
by sizeof is a constant, so it is always determined before program execution.
5.9. EXPRESSIONS IN C++
In C++, anything that evaluates to a value is an expression. An expression is said to
return a value. Thus, 3 + 3 returns the value 6 and so is an expression. All expressions
are statements.
L
An expression in C++ is any valid combination of operators, constant
and variables.
A example of expression in C++:
x = a + b;
This is an expression not only adds a and b but also assigns the result to x and returns the
value of that assignment (the value of x) as well.
y = x = a + b;
This line is evaluated in the following order: Add a to b. Assign the result of the expression
a + b to x. Assign the result of the assignment expression x = a + b to y. If a, b, x, and y
are all integers, and if a has the value 2 and b has the value 5, both x and y will be
assigned the value 7. The program 5.12 displays the example of expressions.
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Program 5.13. Example of Expressions
#include<iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
clrscr();
int a=0, b=0, x=0, y=35;
cout<<"a: "<<a<<" b: "<<b;
cout<<" x: "<<x<<" y: "<<y<< endl;
a = 9;
b = 7;
y = x = a+b;
cout<<"a: "<<a<<" b: "<<b;
cout<<" x: "<<x<<" y: "<<y<< endl;
getch();
}
POINTS TO REMEMBER
(i) C++ is not a pure object oriented language.
(ii) Pure object oriented language purely deals with classes objects which means you
can not write even very simple program without using a class. If you want to
display “Hellow World” you have to write this with in class.
(iii) Java is pure object oriented language.
(iv) If you want to convert one data type to another data type you have to use type
cast.
(v) The small individual unit of C++ program is known as a token.
(vi) A constant value in C++ is created by using a literal.
(vii) Data type specifies the size and type of values that can stored in computer
memory.
(viii) The range of short integers is from – 32768 to 32767.
(ix) Class is user define data type.
(x) Operators are special symbols that perform mathematical or logical operation.
KEY TERMS
❍ Character set
❍ Identifiers
❍ Basic data type
❍ Integer type
❍ Boolean
❍ Token
❍ Constant
❍ User defined data type
❍ Floating type
❍ Character type
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OPERATORS
❍ Derived data type
❍ Operator
❍ Increment and decrement
❍ Associativity and precedence
❍ Arithmetical and logical
❍ Assignment operator
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. A byte can store a relatively small amount of data
(a) One single character
(b) Double character
(c) Integer between 0 and 3267
(d) None of above
2. The smallest integer you can store in a word is declared with the
(a) Integer
(b) Short keyword
(c) Long integer
(d) None of above
3. The float is a real number of
(a) 2 Byte
(c) 8 Byte
(b) 4 Byte
(d) 16 Byte
4. The double is a real number of
(a) 2 Byte
(c) 8 Byte
(b) 4 Byte
(d) 16 Byte
5. To declare a variable as a character use the keyword
(a) String
(b) Char
(c) Character
(d) Array
6. The Boolean data type is used to declare a variable whose value would be set
as
(a) Numeric or character
(b) True (1) or False (0)
(c) Negative or positive
(d) None of above
7. A named location that stores a value is called
(a) Variable
(b) Character
(c) String
(d) Function
8. A global variable is a variable declared in the
(a) Main body of the source code (b) Inside the main function
(c) Inside a class
(d) Inside a user function
9. Anything that evaluates a value in C++.
(a) Statement
(b) Expression
(c) Method
(d) Operator
10. The symbol used to perform the Boolean operation NOT is.
(a) ||
(b) &&
(c) !
(d) << >>
⎫
⎭
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ANSWERS
1. (a)
6. (b)
2. (b)
7. (a)
3. (b)
8. (a)
4. (c)
9. (b)
5. (b)
10. (c)
UNSOLVED QUESTIONS
1. What is C++ ? Explain the features of C++.
2. Explain different token in C++.
3. Write down the structure of C++ program.
4. What do you mean by data type ? Explain different data type in C++.
5. What is the different between user defined and derived data type ?
6. Explain basic data type in C++.
7. What is variable ? Explain the scope of variables in C++.
8. What is operator ? Explain different type of operators in C++.
9. Explain the concept expression in C++.
10. What is the difference between C and C++ ?
❍❍❍