Psychology began as a branch of philosophy but emerged as a scientific field in the late 19th century. Early psychologists had differing views on the structure and function of the mind, leading to schools of thought like structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology. Today, psychology incorporates multiple perspectives including neuroscience, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic approaches to fully understand human behavior.
Review of literature is necessary for research.We can find so many advance thing which are already proven though research by searching the review article only.
THE PRESENTATION INCLUDES :
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHE OR MIND:
CONCEPT OF CONSCIOUS, SUBCONSCIOUS, AND
UNCONSCIOUS MIND
CONCEPT OF ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO:
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FREUD’S THEORY
CONCLUSION
THIS PRESENTATION IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE. HOPE IT HELPED YOU :)
Various views on Human Learning - All 5 Theories Merged.pdfSamruddhi Chepe
Module 2:Various views on human learning (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to -
- compare various views on human learning
- consider various roles of learner and teacher for planning of various learning
situations
Contents
1. Views on human learning with reference to (i) Concepts and principles of each view and
their applicability in different learning situations (ii) Relevance and applicability of
various theories of learning for different kinds of learning situations(iii) Role of learner
and teacher in various learning situations (15)
Behaviourist (conditioning by Pavlov and Skinner in brief),
Cognitivist ( views of Bruner and Ausubel)
Course 4
Learning and Teaching
SNDT Women’s University, Churchgate, Mumbai 20 . 23
Information-processing view(Atkinson Shifrin)
Humanist( Carl Rogers)
Social-constructivist ( Views of Piaget and Lev Vygotski)
STRUCTURALISM
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Ms.Priyanka
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
Akal University Talwandi Sabo
Bathinda.
mokhapriyanka30@gmail.com
Review of literature is necessary for research.We can find so many advance thing which are already proven though research by searching the review article only.
THE PRESENTATION INCLUDES :
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURE OF THE PSYCHE OR MIND:
CONCEPT OF CONSCIOUS, SUBCONSCIOUS, AND
UNCONSCIOUS MIND
CONCEPT OF ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO:
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FREUD’S THEORY
CONCLUSION
THIS PRESENTATION IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE. HOPE IT HELPED YOU :)
Various views on Human Learning - All 5 Theories Merged.pdfSamruddhi Chepe
Module 2:Various views on human learning (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to -
- compare various views on human learning
- consider various roles of learner and teacher for planning of various learning
situations
Contents
1. Views on human learning with reference to (i) Concepts and principles of each view and
their applicability in different learning situations (ii) Relevance and applicability of
various theories of learning for different kinds of learning situations(iii) Role of learner
and teacher in various learning situations (15)
Behaviourist (conditioning by Pavlov and Skinner in brief),
Cognitivist ( views of Bruner and Ausubel)
Course 4
Learning and Teaching
SNDT Women’s University, Churchgate, Mumbai 20 . 23
Information-processing view(Atkinson Shifrin)
Humanist( Carl Rogers)
Social-constructivist ( Views of Piaget and Lev Vygotski)
STRUCTURALISM
SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Ms.Priyanka
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
Akal University Talwandi Sabo
Bathinda.
mokhapriyanka30@gmail.com
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Safalta Digital marketing institute in Noida, provide complete applications that encompass a huge range of virtual advertising and marketing additives, which includes search engine optimization, virtual communication advertising, pay-per-click on marketing, content material advertising, internet analytics, and greater. These university courses are designed for students who possess a comprehensive understanding of virtual marketing strategies and attributes.Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida is a first choice for young individuals or students who are looking to start their careers in the field of digital advertising. The institute gives specialized courses designed and certification.
for beginners, providing thorough training in areas such as SEO, digital communication marketing, and PPC training in Noida. After finishing the program, students receive the certifications recognised by top different universitie, setting a strong foundation for a successful career in digital marketing.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
2. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
• Definition and Basic Terms
• A Science Evolves: The Past, the
Present, and the Future
– The Roots of Psychology
– Today’s Perspective
3. Definition and
Basic Terms
The science that seeks to understand behavior
and mental process and to apply that
understanding in the service of human.
Greek Words:
“Psyche” – Soul
“Logos” – Study• Mind
- refers to our mental processes or mental functions which are all
the things that individuals can do with their minds. These
include perception, judgement, memory, thinking (such
as ideation, imagination, belief, reasoning, etc.), volition,
and emotion.
• Behavior
- refers to the full range of physical, mental and
emotional behaviors that humans engage in; biologically,
socially, intellectually.
4. • Behavior
- It is the response of the system
or organism to various stimuli
or inputs, whether internal or
external, conscious or subconsci
ous, overt or covert,
and voluntary or involuntary
6. OVERT BEHAVIOR
• The observable behaviors such
as walking, talking, laughing,
which can be seen readily are
categorized as overt behavior.
7. • Conscious
- Is a type of behavior which is
conscious or aware of. It is an action
you do from what you really wanted
to do.
• Unconscious
- A type of behavior where the
person is unaware of what he or she
is doing.
8. • Irrational
- It is defined as unreasonable
behavior or having no clear
objective or meaning
9. • Voluntary
- A behaviour that a
person is naturally
contributed to an
action
• Involuntary
- A behaviour that can't
be controlled over
10. Seven thousand years ago, people assumed that psychological problems were
caused by evil spirits. To allow those spirits to escape from a person’s body,
ancient healers chipped a hole in a patient’s skull with crude instruments—a
procedure called trephining .
According to the 17th-century philosopher Descartes, nerves were hollow
tubes through which “animal spirits” conducted impulses in the same way
that water is transmitted through a pipe. When a person put a finger too close
to a fire, heat was transmitted to the brain through the tubes.
Franz Josef Gall, an 18th-century physician, argued that a trained observer
could discern intelligence, moral character, and other basic personality
characteristics from the shape and number of bumps on a person’s skull. His
theory gave rise to the field of phrenology, employed by hundreds of
practitioners in the 19th century.
11. The Roots of Psychology
• The roots of Psychology can be traced back to the ancient Greeks,
who considered the mind to be a suitable topic for scholarly
contemplation. Later philosophers argued for hundreds of years
about some of the questions psychologists grapple with today. For
example, the 17th-century British philosopher John Locke believed
that children were born into the world with minds like “blank
slates” ( tabula rasa in Latin) and that their experiences
determined what kind of adults they would become. His views
contrasted with those of Plato and the 17th-century French
philosopher René Descartes, who argued that some knowledge was
inborn in humans.
12. The Roots of Psychology
• It started with Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in ancient Greece
• These philosophers have debated psychological topics as
where human knowledge comes from, the nature of mind
and soul, the relationship of the mind and the body
• Scientific Psychology thus has its roots in philosophy and
especially in the philosophical view called EMPIRICISM.
13. BIRTH OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
• However, the formal beginning of psychology as a
scientific discipline is generally considered to be in
the late 19th century, when, in Leipzig, Germany,
Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental
laboratory devoted to psychological phenomena.
14. • 1879 – was the birth date of
modern scientific psychology
• Wilhelm Wundt established the first
formal psychology research
laboratory, at the University of
Leipzig, Germany
• Wundt was a physiologist, he had
been studying vision, hearing, and
other sensory perceptual systems.
• GOAL OF HIS STUDY:
--- TO STUDY CONSCIOUSNESS
• Consciousness
the mental experience that arises from
these systems
the awareness of external stimuli and
our own mental activity
• Thus, Wundt began psychology’s
transformation from the philosophy of mental
processes to the science of mental processes.
15. EARLY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS
• Edward Titchener, an Englishman
who studied under Wundt, later
used introspection in his own
laboratory at Cornell University to
study sensation, feelings, and
images associated with conscious
experience
• The study/works of Wundt and
Titchener were known as
STRUCTURALISM
(1.) STRUCTURALISM
• Trying to define the
structure of consciousness
• What made up
consciousness?
• What are the building
blocks of consciousness?
Structuralism - Wundt’s approach,
which focuses on uncovering the
fundamental mental components of
consciousness, thinking, and other
kinds of mental states and activities.
Introspection - A procedure used to
study the structure of the mind in
which subjects are asked to describe in
detail what they are experiencing
when they are exposed to a stimulus.
16. • William James , set up the first
psychology laboratory in the
United States (late 1870s)
• Rejected the idea of structuralism
• James claimed was to understand
how sensations, memories, and all
other mental events that make up
our ever-flowing “streaming of
consciousness” help us adapt to
our environments
FUNCTIONALISTS argued that is its
not the STRUCTURE that should be
studied,
FUNCTIONALISTS, what is more
important to study is the HOW
PROCESS, how the mind affects
what an individual does
(2.) FUNCTIONALISM
• function of consciousness
in guiding our ability to
make decisions, solve
problems, and the like.
• measures individual
differences in learning,
memory, and other
aspects of intelligences
EARLY SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS
17. • 1912, another group of
German psychologists, led by
Hermann Ebbinghaus and
Max Wertheimer, Kurt
Koffka , and Wolfgang
Kohler
• Argued against the value of
trying to break down human
experiences or consciousness
into its component parts.
(3.) GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
• pointed out that the
whole shape of conscious
experience is not the
same as the sum of its
parts
• Consciousness should be
studied as a whole, not
piece by piece.
18. Today’s Perspectives of Psychology
The men and women who laid the foundations of psychology
shared a common goal: to explain and understand behavior
using scientific methods. Seeking to achieve the same goal, the
tens of thousands of psychologists who followed those early
pioneers embraced—and often rejected—a variety of broad
perspectives.
The perspectives of psychology offer distinct outlooks and
emphasize different factors. Just as we can use more than one
map to find our way around a particular region—for instance, a
map that shows roads and highways and another map that
shows major landmarks—psychologists developed a variety of
approaches to understanding behavior. When considered
jointly, the different perspectives provide the means to explain
behavior in its amazing variety
20. Today’s Perspectives of Psychology
• THE NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVE:
BLOOD, SWEAT, AND FEARS
- Views behavior from the perspective of
biological functioning
- The neuroscience perspective considers
how people and nonhumans function
biologically: how individual nerve cells are
joined together, how the inheritance of
certain characteristics from parents and other
ancestors influences behavior, how the
functioning of the body affects hopes and
fears, which behaviors are instinctual, and so
forth.
21. Today’s Perspectives of Psychology
• THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE:
UNDERSTANDING THE INNER PERSON
- Believes behavior is motivated by inner,
unconscious forces over which a person has little
control
- Founded by Sigmund Freud, a Viennese physician
22. Today’s Perspectives of Psychology
• THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE:
OBSERVING THE OUTER PERSON
- The approach that suggests that observable,
measurable behavior should be the focus of study.
- The approach is only concerned with observable
stimulus-response behaviors, and states all
behaviors are learned through interaction with the
environment.
- John B. Watson was the first major American
psychologist to advocate a behavioral approach.
23. Today’s Perspectives of Psychology
• Behavioral
- Ivan Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on
conditioning after originally studying digestion in dogs.
- John B. Watson (1913) launches the behavioral school of
psychology, publishing an article, Psychology as the behaviorist
views it
- Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert
B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat.
• Edward Lee Thorndike (1905) formalized the Law of Effect.
• Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1936) wrote The Behavior of
Organisms and introduced the concepts of operant
conditioning and shaping.
• Albert Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the Social
Leaning Theory and Personality development which combines
both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.
24. Today’s Perspectives of Psychology
• Behavioral: Basic Assumptions
- All behavior is learned from the environment
- Behaviorism is primarily concerned with
observable behavior, as opposed to internal events
like thinking and emotion
- Behavior is the result of stimulus-response
25. Today’s Perspectives
of Psychology
• THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE: IDENTIFYING
THE ROOTS OF UNDERSTANDING’
- The approach that focuses on how people
think, understand, and know about the world.
- The emphasis is on learning how people
comprehend and represent the outside world
within themselves and how our ways of
thinking about the world influence our
behavior.
26. Today’s Perspectives
of Psychology
• THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE: THE UNIQUE QUALITIES
OF THE HUMAN SPECIES
- The approach that suggests that all individuals naturally
strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and
behavior.
- Humanistic psychologists maintain that each of us has the
capacity to seek and reach fulfillment
- Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were the central figures
in the development of this approach
o people strive to reach their full potential if they are
given the opportunity.
o free will , the ability to freely make decisions about
one’s own behavior and life.
The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation.
Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
A specific instance of engaging in cognitive Cognition process is a mental event. The event of perceiving something is different from the entire process, or capacity of perception — one's ability to perceive things. In other words, an instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes those instances possible.
BEHAVIOR
It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert,
and voluntary or involuntary
The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” meaning life, and “logos,” meaning explanation.
Sometimes the term cognitive function is used instead.
A specific instance of engaging in cognitive Cognition process is a mental event. The event of perceiving something is different from the entire process, or capacity of perception — one's ability to perceive things. In other words, an instance of perceiving is different from the ability that makes those instances possible.
BEHAVIOR
It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert,
and voluntary or involuntary
-ABOUT DIVERSITY OF STUDYING BEHAVIOR OF PSYHCOLOGY
The opinions of behaviorists and psychologists in the matter have always been divergent.
https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/behavior/covert
A huge majority of psychologists reason that behaviors are only external actions and behaviors which are observable.
Covert behaviors are unobservable actions which can only be deduced (assumed,construed,reason) by oneself.
However, behavior is psychophysical in origin, and both internal and external world play equal role in occurrence of the behavior.
Anything that brings alteration in the environment can be categorized as behavior, which means even when the actions are unobservable, they are behaviors.
Examples of these covert behaviors are; perceiving, remembering, reasoning, thinking, creating and dreaming among many more.
Further explanations:
In the broader sense, even hidden behaviors bring alteration to the environment and hence they must be classified as behaviors.
Also, psychologists and behaviorists believe that covert behaviors are extremely important in the subject of psychology inquiry. These unseen actions are what influence any and all actions of the individual. Although the study of these covert behaviors aren’t easy to conduct, documentation and collective research can lead to significant discoveries of individual behaviors, state of mind in different circumstances, analyzing the behaviors and so on
https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/behavior/overt
Many psychologists and behaviorists argue that only overt behaviors can be classified under behaviors as a whole, and any behaviors unobservable cannot qualify as behaviors. This theory has been tagged as narrow definition of behavior.
Cooper, Heron, and Heward proposed certain conditions in order to recognize a phenomenon as behavior. The conditions were:
That to be considered a behavior there must be an observable movement shown by an organism.
That there must be an observable alteration in the environment as a result of the movement.
============ Further explanation about Overt Behavior
American psychologists generally agree that the subject matter of psychology is largely the observable behavior of humans and other species of animals.
The individuals, who study overt behaviors, or human behaviors, classify the observable actions by form, intensity, duration and frequency.
Any and all observable behaviors such as whispering, walking, yawning and jumping are overt behaviors. Behaviorists analyze these observable actions to recognize the person’s feelings, emotions and mental conditions.
Regardless of stimulus, any action such as laughter, rage, or activities like throwing off a desk, hitting someone, the behaviors that can be observed are overt behaviors. Observation and study of these behaviors helps behaviorists and psychologists to understand the core of the person, the inner feelings.
For instance, if a person is observed to be yawning, it can be hypothesized that the person is either bored or sleepy. Likewise, anger, frustration and other emotions can also be observed by analyzing the overt behaviors.
Conscious Behavior:
Is a type of behavior is conscious or aware. It is an action you do from what you really wanted to do.
Example of this is making breakfast. You make and eat breakfast because you are hungry.
It is like you know what you're doing or action with purposive conduct.
Unconscious Behavior:
A type of behavior where the person is unaware of what he's doing.
It is because of the automatic response of the body such as breathing and the beating of our hearts.
Unconscious behavior is doing anything without thinking of any motivation because it is automatically done.
Screaming because of cockroaches, spiders of females are like examples of unconscious behavior.
Rational Behavior: A type of behavior that is reasonable and used to explain the choices that people make with regards to achieving satisfaction. It is like, people would rather be better off or have more than less. For example, a person is more likely to buy an item at a lower price like items on sale because they believe it is better.
Irrational Behavior: It is defined as unreasonable behavior or having no clear objective or meaning. Example of this based of what I've red is, you want to have a good day yet you punch the mailman in the face. It is senseless and meaningless.
Voluntary Behavior:
Behavior that a person is naturally contributed to an action.
It also means that you have a free will and able to make a decision to take a specific action.
Taking a walk down the street is an example of voluntary behavior.
Involuntary Behavior:
Behavior that can't be controlled over.
Example of this is when being emerged into bright sunlight from a dark place, we usually blink several times often without even knowing it.
Phrenology - the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.
Reference: Understanding Psychology by Robert S. Feldman
Grapple – tackle
History of Psychology can be traced through centuries.
It started at least during the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in ancient Greece
These philosophers have debated psychological topics as where human knowledge comes from, the nature of mind and soul, the relationship of the mind and the body
Scientific Psychology thus has its roots in philosophy and especially in the philosophical view called EMPIRICISM
Reference: Understanding Psychology by Robert S. Feldman
History of Psychology can be traced through centuries.
It started at least during the time of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in ancient Greece
These philosophers have debated psychological topics as where human knowledge comes from, the nature of mind and soul, the relationship of the mind and the body
Scientific Psychology thus has its roots in philosophy and especially in the philosophical view called EMPIRICISM
Empiricism in 1600s – John Locke, Goerge Berkely, and David Hume argued that our MINDS are more like a blank slate
BLANK SLATE – “TABULA RASA” (Latin Word) on which our experiences write a lifelong story.
thus, knowledge comes to us only through our experiences and observations
Empiricism
the view that knowledge comes from experience and observation- sensory experience (PRIMARY EXPONENTS)
Disclaim that knowledge is present at birth
In philosophy, empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. ... Empiricism emphasises the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or traditions.
THUS, EMPIRICISM has guided psychologists in seeking knowledge about behavior and mental processes through observations governed by rules of science, rather than speculation, for more than 130 years
Note: Questions to ponder
What was his study all about?
At about the same time, William James was setting up his laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Physiologists examine how the body works under abnormal and normal conditions at the cellular and molecular levels.
These professionals study how different body parts work together, including the lungs, heart, and muscles.
Physiologists also focus on the way the body reacts in various environments, including water and space.
A physiologist analyzes these functions of the human body, at the whole organism, cellular, and/or molecular levels
GOAL – is to study the building blocks of the mind -----to study consciousness
PHILOSOPHY (Principle, Idea, viewpoint)
Philosophy (from Greek philosophia, literally "love of wisdom") is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Wundt, wanted to describe the basic elements of consciousness including how they are organized and how they relate to one another
To determine how basic sensory processes shape our understanding of the world, Wundt and other structuralists used a procedure called introspection
Wundt argued that by analyzing people’s reports, psychologists could come to a better understanding of the structure of the mind.
Over time, psychologists challenged Wundt’s approach.
They became increasingly dissatisfied with the assumption that introspection could reveal the structure of the mind.
Introspection was not a truly scientific technique, because there were few ways an outside observer could confirm the accuracy of others’ introspections.
Moreover, people had difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences, such as emotional responses.
Those drawbacks led to the development of new approaches, which largely replaced structuralism.
INTROSPECTION – looking inward
- his method to study conscious experience
Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.[1]
In psychology the process of introspection relies exclusively on observation of one's mental state, while in a spiritual context it may refer to the examination of one's soul
STIMULI – plural
============ WUNDT
He stated that the only elements necessary to describe the conscious experience are sensation and affection (feeling). The thought process essentially was deemed an occurrence of sensations of the current experience and feelings representing a prior experience.
It was Titchener who called/used structuralism
Wundt and Titchener, were not the only scientific researchers in psychology, their work was not universally accepted
CRITICISM – method of study was too simplistic
NOTE: William James, his emphasis on the functions of mental process encouraged other North American psychologists to look at how those processes work to our advantage and how they differ from person to person
The perspective that replaced structuralism is known as functionalism.
Rather than focusing on the mind’s structure, functionalism concentrated on what the mind does and how behavior functions.
Functionalists, whose perspective became prominent in the early 1900s, asked what role behavior plays in allowing people to adapt to their environments. For example, a functionalist might examine the function of the emotion of fear in preparing us to deal with emergency situations.
“The whole is different from the sum of its parts,”
meaning that our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our perceptions.
Gestalt psychologists have made substantial contributions to our understanding of perception.
Structuralism – the whole is equal to its parts?????????
seeking to explain perceptions in terms of gestalts rather than by analyzing their constituents.
a school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole.
Provide the modern study of perception
-------------
In 1912 Wertheimer discovered the phi phenomenon, an optical illusion in which stationary objects shown in rapid succession, transcending the threshold at which they can be perceived separately, appear to move. The explanation of this phenomenon—also known as persistence of vision and experienced when viewing motion pictures—provided strong support for Gestalt principles.
GESTALT MEANS
an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts.
a configuration or pattern of elements so unified as a whole that it cannot be described merely as a sum of its parts
Today, the field of psychology includes five major perspectives (summarized in Figure 2).
These broad perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior and mental processes, and each takes our understanding of behavior in a somewhat different direction.
The perspectives of psychology offer distinct outlooks and emphasize different factors.
Just as we can use more than one map to find our way around a particular region—for instance, a map that shows roads and highways and another map that shows major landmarks—psychologists developed a variety of approaches to understanding behavior.
When considered jointly, the different perspectives provide the means to explain behavior in its amazing variety. Today, the field of psychology includes fi ve major perspectives (summarized inFigure 2).
These broad perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior and mental processes, and each takes our understanding of behavior in a somewhat different direction.
Neuroscience perspective The approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions.
Because every behavior ultimately can be broken down into its biological components, the neuroscience perspective has broad appeal.
Psychologists who subscribe to this perspective have made major contributions to the understanding and betterment of human life, ranging from cures for certain types of deafness to drug treatments for people with severe mental disorders.
Furthermore, advances in methods for examining the anatomy and functioning of the brain have permitted the neuroscientific perspective to extend its influence across a broad range of subfields in psychology.
Proponents of the psychodynamic perspective argue that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control.
They view dreams and slips of the tongue as indications of what a person is truly feeling within a seething cauldron of unconscious psychic activity.
The origins of the psychodynamic view are linked to one person: Sigmund Freud. Freud was a Viennese physician in the early 1900s whose ideas about unconscious determinants of behavior had a revolutionary effect on 20th-century thinking, not just in psychology but in related fields as well.
Although some of the original Freudian principles have been roundly criticized, the contemporary psychodynamic perspective has provided a means not only to understand and treat some kinds of psychological disorders but also to understand everyday phenomena such as prejudice and aggression
Whereas the neuroscience and psychodynamic approaches look inside the organism to determine the causes of its behavior, the behavioral perspective takes a very different approach
The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of psychology’s early emphasis on the inner workings of the mind. Instead, behaviorists suggested that the field should focus on observable behavior that can be measured objectively
Whereas the neuroscience and psychodynamic approaches look inside the organism to determine the causes of its behavior, the behavioral perspective takes a very different approach
The behavioral perspective grew out of a rejection of psychology’s early emphasis on the inner workings of the mind. Instead, behaviorists suggested that the field should focus on observable behavior that can be measured objectively
https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html
How it evolved and reacted to other perspective?
Efforts to understand behavior lead some psychologists straight into the mind. Evolving in part from structuralism and in part as a reaction to behaviorism, which focused so heavily on observable behavior and the environment,
=========================================
Many psychologists who adhere to the cognitive perspective compare human thinking to the workings of a computer, which takes in information and transforms, stores, and retrieves it. In their view, thinking is information processing .
Psychologists who rely on the cognitive perspective ask questions on subjects ranging from how people make decisions to whether a person can watch television and study at the same time. The common elements that link cognitive approaches are an emphasis on how people understand and think about the world and an interest in describing the patterns and irregularities in the operation of our minds.
What did Humanistic reject to other perspective?
Rejecting the view that behavior is determined largely by automatically unfolding biological forces, unconscious processes, or the environment,
What is their claim and how did they address understanding and studying human behavior?
the humanistic perspective instead suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior.
==============================================================================================
Conflicting thoughts to other perspective:
free will stands in contrast to determinism (Freud), which sees behavior as caused, or determined, by things beyond a person’s control.
people have the ability to make their own choices about their behavior rather than relying on societal standards (behavioral)
=======
More than any other approach, it stresses the role of psychology in enriching people’s lives and helping them achieve self-fulfillment. By reminding psychologists of their commitment to the individual person in society, the humanistic perspective has been an important influence (Dillon, 2008; Robbins, 2008).
Nature vs. Nurture
How much of people’s behavior is due to their genetically determined nature (heredity),
and how much is due to nurture, the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is raised? Furthermore, what is the interplay between heredity and environment?
Psychologist’s take on this issue depends partly on which major perspective he or she subscribes to.
EXAMPLE SITUATION OR FOCUS OF STUDY
For example, developmental psychologists whose focus is on how people grow and change throughout the course of their lives, may be most interested in learning more about hereditary influences if they follow a neuroscience perspective.
In contrast, developmental psychologists who are proponents of the behavioral perspective would be more likely to focus on environment (Rutter, 2002, 2006)
However, every psychologist would agree that neither nature nor nurture alone is the sole determinant of behavior; rather, it is a combination of the two.
In a sense, then, the real controversy involves how much of our behavior is caused by heredity and how much is caused by environmental influences.
The question on conscious or unconscious represents one of the great controversies in the field of psychology.
Conscious vs. Unconscious
How much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware,
and how much is due to unconscious activity—mental processes that are not accessible to the conscious mind?
EXAMPLE SITUATION
For example, clinical psychologists adopting a psychodynamic perspective argue that psychological disorders are brought about by unconscious factors,
whereas psychologists employing the cognitive perspective suggest that psychological disorders largely are the result of faulty thinking processes.
Observable Behavior vs. Internal Mental Process
Should psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should it focus on unseen thinking processes?
Some psychologists, particularly those relying on the behavioral perspective, contend that the only legitimate source of information for psychologists is behavior that can be observed directly.
Other psychologists, building on the cognitive perspective, argue that what goes on inside a person’s mind is critical to understanding behavior, and so we must concern ourselves with mental processes.
Free Will vs. Determinism
How much of our behavior is a matter of free will (choices made freely by an individual),
and how much is subject to determinism , the notion that behavior is largely produced by factors beyond people’s willful control?
EXAMPLE SITUATION
some psychologists who specialize in psychological disorders argue that people make intentional choices and that those who display so-called abnormal behavior should be considered responsible for their actions.
Other psychologists disagree and contend that such individuals are the victims of forces beyond their control. The position psychologists take on this issue has important implications for the way they treat psychological disorders, especially in deciding whether treatment should be forced on people who don’t want it.
Individual Differences vs. Universal Principles
How much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how much reflects the culture and society in which we live?
How much of our behavior is universally human?
======================================
Psychologists who rely on the neuroscience perspective tend to look for universal principles of behavior, such as how the nervous system operates or the way certain hormones automatically prime us for sexual activity. Such psychologists concentrate on the similarities in our behavioral destinies despite vast differences in our upbringing.
In contrast, psychologists who employ the humanistic perspective focus more on the uniqueness of every individual. They consider every person’s behavior a reflection of distinct and special individual qualities.
Individual Differences vs. Universal Principles
How much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, and how much reflects the culture and society in which we live?
How much of our behavior is universally human?
======================================
Psychologists who rely on the neuroscience perspective tend to look for universal principles of behavior, such as how the nervous system operates or the way certain hormones automatically prime us for sexual activity. Such psychologists concentrate on the similarities in our behavioral destinies despite vast differences in our upbringing.
In contrast, psychologists who employ the humanistic perspective focus more on the uniqueness of every individual. They consider every person’s behavior a reflection of distinct and special individual qualities.
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. While you might understand what psychology is, many people are not quite so sure about what psychology does. What purpose does psychology serve? What are its goals?
Let's take a closer look at the major goals of psychology, what psychologists strive to accomplish, and how psychology is used to solve real-world problems.