The document discusses several theories of interest rate determination:
1. The classical theory argues that interest rates are determined by the supply of savings and demand for investment, where the equilibrium rate balances the two.
2. The liquidity preference theory views interest as the price of money, with rates set by demand for and supply of money in the economy.
3. The loanable funds theory sees rates as set by demand for and supply of credit in the economy from savers, borrowers, and foreign actors.
Liquidity Preference Theory suggests that investors demand higher interest rates or additional premiums for medium or long-term maturities and investments. Simply put, interest rates directly indicate the price of the money.
https://efinancemanagement.com/investment-decisions/liquidity-preference-theory
The classical doctrine—that the economy is always at or near the natural level of real GDP (full employment)—is based on two firmly held beliefs:
The assumption of the full employment of labour and other productive resources
Belief that prices, wages, and interest rates are flexible.
Keynesian Theory
Liquidity Preference Theory suggests that investors demand higher interest rates or additional premiums for medium or long-term maturities and investments. Simply put, interest rates directly indicate the price of the money.
https://efinancemanagement.com/investment-decisions/liquidity-preference-theory
The classical doctrine—that the economy is always at or near the natural level of real GDP (full employment)—is based on two firmly held beliefs:
The assumption of the full employment of labour and other productive resources
Belief that prices, wages, and interest rates are flexible.
Keynesian Theory
Determination of exchange rate chapter 6Nayan Vaghela
Determination of exchange rate, mint par theory, balance of payment theory, Purchasing power parity theory, Absolute version and relative version, Criticisms
A fantastic PPT on the foreign exchange rate. The PPT includes meaning and concept of foreign exchange and foreign exchange rate, the systems of determining foreign exchange rate, depreciation of domestic, appreciation of domestic currency, devaluation and revaluation of domestic currency. This PPT also explain the role of RBI in managing the exchange rate by using the concept of managed floating. Just download it and make your concepts stronger. Happy Learning !!
Determination of exchange rate chapter 6Nayan Vaghela
Determination of exchange rate, mint par theory, balance of payment theory, Purchasing power parity theory, Absolute version and relative version, Criticisms
A fantastic PPT on the foreign exchange rate. The PPT includes meaning and concept of foreign exchange and foreign exchange rate, the systems of determining foreign exchange rate, depreciation of domestic, appreciation of domestic currency, devaluation and revaluation of domestic currency. This PPT also explain the role of RBI in managing the exchange rate by using the concept of managed floating. Just download it and make your concepts stronger. Happy Learning !!
The whole slide describe about the financial system and the components of financial system. the branches of the financial institutions. And describe about savings, investment, loanable fund market and the economic actions that change the loanable fund market's demand and supply curve, which change the economic structures.
Interest Rates Explained 2024 What You Need to Know.docxAmit Kumar
Have you ever wondered why the stock market jumps on news about inflation, or why a government's decision to change interest rates sends the financial world into a frenzy? It's a complex dance, but at the heart of it lies the relationship between interest rates and the stock market. Understanding this connection is like decoding a secret language that can help you make smarter investment decisions. Get ready to explore how interest rate shifts shape businesses, consumer behaviour, and ultimately, the prices of stocks you see on the ticker.
From global economic trends to your own portfolio, interest rates hold surprising sway. Let's start with a timeline of major turning points in interest rate history – those moments that sent shockwaves through the markets…
Imagine you've taken out a loan to buy a house. The interest rate on that loan is essentially the extra cost you pay for borrowing the money. Let's say your interest rate increases. Now, your monthly payments go up, leaving you with less disposable income to spend elsewhere. This is just one-way interest rates touch our lives.
The Bigger Picture
At its core, an interest rate is the "price" of borrowing money. Banks charge interest on loans they give out, and they may offer interest on money you deposit with them. Governments even charge interest on bonds they issue! It's a crucial lever in the financial system, influencing how much businesses and consumers spend, save, and invest.
A truly unique example comes from Sweden. In 2009, to encourage borrowing and boost the economy during a financial crisis, the central bank implemented a negative interest rate policy. This meant people actually paid the bank to hold onto their money! While this might sound strange, it incentivized people to spend or invest their cash, which could stimulate economic activity. This policy wasn't without drawbacks, and Sweden eventually moved away from negative rates. But it serves as a fascinating illustration of how central banks can use interest rates as unconventional tools.
Types of Interest Rates
You'll often hear terms like:
• Repo Rate: The central bank (like India's RBI) sets this rate, at which it lends to commercial banks. Changes to the repo rate ripple through the economy.
• Reverse Repo Rate: The rate the central bank pays on banks' deposits with it. This helps manage the flow of money.
• Bank Lending Rates: Rates banks set on loans to businesses and individuals (mortgage rates, car loans, etc.)
Key takeaway: Interest rates are not one-size-fits-all. They play different roles, impacting our pockets and the broader economy.
Now that we understand what interest rates are, let's explore how changes in these rates can send ripple effects through the stock market.
How Interest Rates Affect the Stock Market
Businesses and Interest Rates
Businesses, the backbone of the stock market, feel the impact of interest rates in several ways:
Read full article at newspatron or download PDF.
Assignment for my macroeconomics class covering fiancial markets, financial intermediaries & institutions, the federal government deficit as well as time value money concepts.
when will pi network coin be available on crypto exchange.DOT TECH
There is no set date for when Pi coins will enter the market.
However, the developers are working hard to get them released as soon as possible.
Once they are available, users will be able to exchange other cryptocurrencies for Pi coins on designated exchanges.
But for now the only way to sell your pi coins is through verified pi vendor.
Here is the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor
@Pi_vendor_247
how can i use my minded pi coins I need some funds.DOT TECH
If you are interested in selling your pi coins, i have a verified pi merchant, who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
Because the core team has announced that pi network will not be doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges like huobi, bitmart and hotbit can get pi is by buying from miners.
Now a merchant stands in between these exchanges and the miners. As a link to make transactions smooth. Because right now in the enclosed mainnet you can't sell pi coins your self. You need the help of a merchant,
i will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant below. 👇 I and my friends has traded more than 3000pi coins with him successfully.
@Pi_vendor_247
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
how can I sell my pi coins for cash in a pi APPDOT TECH
You can't sell your pi coins in the pi network app. because it is not listed yet on any exchange.
The only way you can sell is by trading your pi coins with an investor (a person looking forward to hold massive amounts of pi coins before mainnet launch) .
You don't need to meet the investor directly all the trades are done with a pi vendor/merchant (a person that buys the pi coins from miners and resell it to investors)
I Will leave The telegram contact of my personal pi vendor, if you are finding a legitimate one.
@Pi_vendor_247
#pi network
#pi coins
#money
The European Unemployment Puzzle: implications from population agingGRAPE
We study the link between the evolving age structure of the working population and unemployment. We build a large new Keynesian OLG model with a realistic age structure, labor market frictions, sticky prices, and aggregate shocks. Once calibrated to the European economy, we quantify the extent to which demographic changes over the last three decades have contributed to the decline of the unemployment rate. Our findings yield important implications for the future evolution of unemployment given the anticipated further aging of the working population in Europe. We also quantify the implications for optimal monetary policy: lowering inflation volatility becomes less costly in terms of GDP and unemployment volatility, which hints that optimal monetary policy may be more hawkish in an aging society. Finally, our results also propose a partial reversal of the European-US unemployment puzzle due to the fact that the share of young workers is expected to remain robust in the US.
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview.pptxmarketing367770
USDA Loans in California: A Comprehensive Overview
If you're dreaming of owning a home in California's rural or suburban areas, a USDA loan might be the perfect solution. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) offers these loans to help low-to-moderate-income individuals and families achieve homeownership.
Key Features of USDA Loans:
Zero Down Payment: USDA loans require no down payment, making homeownership more accessible.
Competitive Interest Rates: These loans often come with lower interest rates compared to conventional loans.
Flexible Credit Requirements: USDA loans have more lenient credit score requirements, helping those with less-than-perfect credit.
Guaranteed Loan Program: The USDA guarantees a portion of the loan, reducing risk for lenders and expanding borrowing options.
Eligibility Criteria:
Location: The property must be located in a USDA-designated rural or suburban area. Many areas in California qualify.
Income Limits: Applicants must meet income guidelines, which vary by region and household size.
Primary Residence: The home must be used as the borrower's primary residence.
Application Process:
Find a USDA-Approved Lender: Not all lenders offer USDA loans, so it's essential to choose one approved by the USDA.
Pre-Qualification: Determine your eligibility and the amount you can borrow.
Property Search: Look for properties in eligible rural or suburban areas.
Loan Application: Submit your application, including financial and personal information.
Processing and Approval: The lender and USDA will review your application. If approved, you can proceed to closing.
USDA loans are an excellent option for those looking to buy a home in California's rural and suburban areas. With no down payment and flexible requirements, these loans make homeownership more attainable for many families. Explore your eligibility today and take the first step toward owning your dream home.
The secret way to sell pi coins effortlessly.DOT TECH
Well as we all know pi isn't launched yet. But you can still sell your pi coins effortlessly because some whales in China are interested in holding massive pi coins. And they are willing to pay good money for it. If you are interested in selling I will leave a contact for you. Just telegram this number below. I sold about 3000 pi coins to him and he paid me immediately.
Telegram: @Pi_vendor_247
Introduction to Indian Financial System ()Avanish Goel
The financial system of a country is an important tool for economic development of the country, as it helps in creation of wealth by linking savings with investments.
It facilitates the flow of funds form the households (savers) to business firms (investors) to aid in wealth creation and development of both the parties
If you are looking for a pi coin investor. Then look no further because I have the right one he is a pi vendor (he buy and resell to whales in China). I met him on a crypto conference and ever since I and my friends have sold more than 10k pi coins to him And he bought all and still want more. I will drop his telegram handle below just send him a message.
@Pi_vendor_247
Resume
• Real GDP growth slowed down due to problems with access to electricity caused by the destruction of manoeuvrable electricity generation by Russian drones and missiles.
• Exports and imports continued growing due to better logistics through the Ukrainian sea corridor and road. Polish farmers and drivers stopped blocking borders at the end of April.
• In April, both the Tax and Customs Services over-executed the revenue plan. Moreover, the NBU transferred twice the planned profit to the budget.
• The European side approved the Ukraine Plan, which the government adopted to determine indicators for the Ukraine Facility. That approval will allow Ukraine to receive a EUR 1.9 bn loan from the EU in May. At the same time, the EU provided Ukraine with a EUR 1.5 bn loan in April, as the government fulfilled five indicators under the Ukraine Plan.
• The USA has finally approved an aid package for Ukraine, which includes USD 7.8 bn of budget support; however, the conditions and timing of the assistance are still unknown.
• As in March, annual consumer inflation amounted to 3.2% yoy in April.
• At the April monetary policy meeting, the NBU again reduced the key policy rate from 14.5% to 13.5% per annum.
• Over the past four weeks, the hryvnia exchange rate has stabilized in the UAH 39-40 per USD range.
how to swap pi coins to foreign currency withdrawable.DOT TECH
As of my last update, Pi is still in the testing phase and is not tradable on any exchanges.
However, Pi Network has announced plans to launch its Testnet and Mainnet in the future, which may include listing Pi on exchanges.
The current method for selling pi coins involves exchanging them with a pi vendor who purchases pi coins for investment reasons.
If you want to sell your pi coins, reach out to a pi vendor and sell them to anyone looking to sell pi coins from any country around the globe.
Below is the contact information for my personal pi vendor.
Telegram: @Pi_vendor_247
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
What website can I sell pi coins securely.DOT TECH
Currently there are no website or exchange that allow buying or selling of pi coins..
But you can still easily sell pi coins, by reselling it to exchanges/crypto whales interested in holding thousands of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell to these crypto whales and holders of pi..
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners and pi merchants stands in between the miners and the exchanges.
How can I sell my pi coins?
Selling pi coins is really easy, but first you need to migrate to mainnet wallet before you can do that. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
Tele-gram.
@Pi_vendor_247
2. Nature of Interest Rates
The very definition of interest depends on the interest theory
which one accepts. Those, who believe in the classical or real
theory, regard interest as payment for the use of capital goods.
They also believe that interest is necessary to induce people to
save.
Interest is “the price paid for the use of capital in any market”.
Just as wage is the price of the service of labor, similarly,
interest is the price of capital
Interest thus “the market rate of interest is that percentage
return per year which has to be paid on any safe loan of money.
3. Cont’d
The rate of interest (Cost of Capital) is the price paid by the
borrower for the use of others money over a period of time.
Borrowers must pay interest to secure scarce loanable funds
from lender for an agreed-upon period.
The rate of interest is really a ratio of two quantities:–
the money cost of borrowing funds
the amount of money actually borrowed
Usually expressed on an annual percentage basis.
4. Cont’d
Interest rates send price signals to borrowers, lenders, savers,
and investors.
For example, higher interest rates generally bring forth a
greater volume of savings and stimulate the lending of funds.
Lower interest rate, on the other hand, tend to lower the flow
of savings and reduce lending activity.
Higher interest rates provide incentives to increase the supply
of funds, but at the same time they reduce the demand for
those funds.
Lower interest rates have the opposite effects.
5. Functions of the Rate of Interest in the Economy
1. It helps to provide guarantee that current savings will flow into
investment to promote economic growth.
2. The rate of interest rations the available supply of credit,
generally providing loanable funds to investment projects with
the highest expected returns.
3. It brings into balance the nation’s supply of money with the
public’s demand for money.
4. The rate of interest is also an important tool of government
through its influence upon the volume of saving and
investment.
6. The Theory of Interest Rates
There are several theories of interest rates and their
implications in the financial system. Among these theories,
the following four are the common as well as the popular
ones:
The Classical theory of Interest Rates;
Liquidity preference theory of interest rate;
The Loanable Funds theory of Interest Rates;
The Rational Expectations theory of Interest Rates.
7. The Classical Theory of Interest Rates
The classical theory argues that rate of interest is determined by
two forces:
The supply of savings, derived mainly from households,
business org. and government unit.
The demand capital for investment by the business sector,
individuals and government units.
The classical economists believed that interest rates in the
financial market were determined by the interplay of the
supply of saving and the demand of capital for investment.
8. Cont’d
The Classical Theory of Interest Rates argue that there is
positive relationship between interest rate and volume of
savings.
Higher interest rates bring forth a greater volume of saving.
On other hand classical theory states that there is a negative
relationship between demand of capital for investment and
interest rate.
At low rates of interest more investment projects become
economically viable and firms require more funds to finance
projects.
On the other hand, if the rate of interest rises to high levels,
fewer investment projects will be pursued and less funds will
be required.
9. Cont’d
Relationship between Interest Rates, Saving and
Investment
Interest
Rate
Current
Saving
r1
S1
r2
S2
Interest
Rate
Investment
Spending
r1
I1
I2
r2
10. Cont’d
The Equilibrium Rate Of Interest is determined at the point
where the quantity of savings supplied to the market is exactly
equal to the quantity of funds demanded for investment.
At the given time the rate is probably above or below its true
equilibrium level, the market rate of interest always moves
toward its equilibrium level.
11. The Equilibrium Rate of Interest
In the Classical Theory of Interest Rates
Interest
Rate
Savings &
Investment
rE
QE
Investment Savings
Cont’d
12. Cont’d
If the market rate is temporarily above equilibrium, the
volume of savings Exceeds the demand for investment
capital, creating an excess supply of savings.
Excess reserve forces Savers to offer their funds at lower
and lower rates until the market interest rate approaches
equilibrium.
If the market rate lies temporarily below equilibrium,
investment demand exceeds the quantity of savings
available.
Business firms increase the interest rate until it approaches
equilibrium point.
13. Limitations of the Classical Theory of Interest
The central problem is that the theory ignores several
factors other than saving and investment which affect
interest rates.
The classical theory assumes that interest rates are the
principal determinant of the quantity of savings available.
but, economists recognize that income is more important
than interest rates in determining the volume of saving.
14. The Liquidity Preference (cash balance) Theory
Developed during the 1930s by British Economist John M.
Keynes.
It is a short-run approach to interest rate determination because
it assumes that income remains stable.
Keynes argued that the rate of interest is a payment for the use
of a scare resources- Money.
Keynes also argue that even though money yield is low or
nonexistent, businesses and individuals Prefer to hold money
for carrying out daily transactions and future cash needs.
15. Keynes observed that the public demands immediate money
for three different purposes.
Transactions Motive: the demand for money in order to
purchase goods and services.
Precautionary Motive: to cover future unexpected expenses,
because we live in a world of uncertainty and cannot predict
exactly what expenses or opportunities will arise in the
future.
Speculative Motive: holding money to overcome uncertainty
about the declining security prices i.e. future price of Bonds.
Cont’d
16. Cont’d
The total demand for money in the economy is simply the sum
of transactions, precautionary, and speculative demands.
The other major element determining interest rates in liquidity
preference theory is the supply of money.
As money supply is controlled or at least closely regulated by
government it is inelastic with respect to the rate of interest.
For Keynes, the supply of money is fully under the control of
the central bank. Moreover, the money supply is not affected
by the level of the interest rate.
17. Cont’d
In the theory of liquidity preference, only two outlets for investor
fund are considered or assumed- Bonds & Money (including bank
deposits).
At a low interest rate, people hold a lot of money because they do
not lose much interest by doing so and because the risk of a rise
in rates (and a fall in the value of bonds) may be large.
With a high interest rate, people desire to hold bonds rather than
money, because the cost of liquidity is substantial in terms of lost
interest payments and because a decline in the interest rate would
lead to gains in the bonds’ values.
18. Cont’d
If we see the total money demand and total money supply; when
supply of money exceeds the quantity demanded and hence,
some businesses, households, and units of government will try to
dispose-off their unwanted money balances by purchasing
bonds. The prices of bonds will rise as a result, driving interest
rates down towards the equilibrium.
On the other hand, at rates below equilibrium the quantity of
money demanded exceeds the supply. Some decision makers in
economy will sell their bonds to raise additional cash, driving
bond down and interest rates up toward equilibrium.
19. Limitation of liquidity preference theory
It is a short-run approach to interest rate determination because it
assumes that income remains stable but in long run income is
not stable
liquidity preference considers only the supply and demand for
the stock of money, whereas business, consumer, & government
demands for credit clearly have an impact upon the cost of credit
borrowers.
20. The Loanable Funds Theory
Loanable funds is the sum total of all the money people and entities
in an economy have decided to save and lend out to borrowers as an
investment rather than use for personal consumption
This view argues that the risk-free interest rate is determined by the
interplay of two forces:
Demand for loanable funds and
The supply of loanable funds.
The demand for loanable funds consists of :
Credit demands from domestic businesses;
Consumers;
Units of government and
Borrowing in the domestic market by foreigners. Like Foreign
banks, corporations, and foreign governments
21. Cont’d
The supply of loanable funds comes from people and organizations,
such as government and businesses, that have decided not to spend
some of their money, but instead, save it for investment purposes.
One way to make an investment is to lend money to borrowers at a
rate of interest.
The supply of loanable funds stems from four sources:
Domestic savings,
Hoarding demand for money, either positive hoarding which
reduces volume of loanable funds or negative hoarding or
dishoarding, which increases volume of loanable funds,
Money creation by the banking system, and
Lending in the domestic market by foreign individuals &
institutions.
22. The idea of rational expectations theory was first developed
1961 & popularized by economist Robert Lucas in the 1970s
The theory states the following assumptions:
With rational expectations, people always learn from past
mistakes.
Forecasts are unbiased, and people use all the available
information and economic theories to make decisions.
In the rational expectations theory, individuals base their
decisions on human rationality, information available to them,
and their past experiences ……
The Rational Expectations Theory of Interest
Rates
23. Cont’d
The rational expectations theory builds upon a growing body
of researches.
Rational expectations theory developed on the bases that the
interest rate increase or decrease in the economy depends on
expectation of rational investors about future based on current
information.
This theory evidence that the money and capital markets
which reacts to new information affects interest rates &
security prices.
24. Cont’d
This theory states that , if the money & capital markets are
highly efficient interest rates will always be at or very near their
equilibrium levels.
The rational expectations theory also suggests that interest rates
do not change permanently from their current equilibrium levels
unless new information appears.
25. The Structure of Interest Rates
There is no one interest rate in any economy; rather, there is a
structure of interest rates.
The term structure of interest rates refers to the relationship
between interest rates or bond yields and different terms or
maturities.
The Base of Interest Rate:
Market participants throughout the world view Treasury bill as
having no credit risk.
As a result, the interest rates on Treasury securities have served
as the benchmark interest or basis of interest rate throughout
international financial market.
26. Cont’d
Interest Rate = Base Interest Rate + Risk Premium
A risk premium reflects the additional risks the investor faces by
acquiring non-treasury bill securities.
The factors that affect risk premium of securities are:
1. The issuer’s perceived creditworthiness
Default risk or credit risk refers to the risk that the issuer of a bond may
be unable to make timely principal or interest payments
Most market participants rely primarily on commercial rating companies
(credit rating companies) to assess the default risk of an issuer.
2. Term of maturity
3. Taxability of interest
27. Factors affecting interest rate determination
Demand for and supply of money
Government borrowing
Inflation
Central Bank's monetary policy objectives etc.