The integumentary system consists of the skin and its appendages. The skin is made up of two layers - the epidermis and dermis. The epidermis is avascular and composed of stratified squamous epithelium in five layers. The dermis lies below and contains blood vessels, hair follicles, and glands. Functions of the skin include protection, regulation of temperature and moisture, synthesis of vitamin D, and sensation. Sweat glands and sebaceous glands are important appendages that aid temperature regulation and protect the skin surface.
This document summarizes the structure and contraction mechanism of skeletal muscle. It describes the hierarchical structure of muscle from the whole muscle down to the contractile myofibrils. The myofibrils contain repeating units called sarcomeres, which are composed of actin and myosin filaments. Muscle contraction is triggered by a nerve impulse that causes calcium release and the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere. Contraction occurs as long as calcium is present; relaxation happens when calcium is pumped back into storage.
Leydig cells are found in the testicles and produce the hormone testosterone when stimulated by luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland. They release testosterone and other androgens which leads to male characteristics. Leydig cells have a polyhedral shape with a large nucleus and lipid-filled vesicles. They are named after Franz Leydig who discovered them in 1850.
The document discusses thyroid metabolic hormones and their functions. It covers:
- Synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine by the thyroid gland under control of TSH.
- Physiologic functions of thyroid hormones which increase metabolic rate by activating genes in cells.
- Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion by TSH and TRH from the hypothalamus and pituitary, and by negative feedback from thyroid hormones.
- Diseases of the thyroid including hyperthyroidism which causes excessive thyroid hormone secretion and hypothyroidism which causes inadequate secretion.
This document summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle contraction. It discusses the structures involved like the sarcomere, thick and thin filaments, and T-tubules. The process of muscle contraction involves excitation-contraction coupling where an action potential triggers the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum via T-tubules. Calcium binds to troponin allowing the myosin heads on thick filaments to bind to actin on thin filaments. The power stroke of the myosin heads pulls the thin filaments inward, shortening the sarcomere. Relaxation occurs when calcium is reabsorbed by the sarcoplasmic reticulum allowing detachment of the myosin heads.
Gastric secretion and its regulation involves many hormones. Gastrin stimulates gastric acid secretion from parietal cells. Cholecystokinin stimulates gallbladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion. Secretin increases pancreatic bicarbonate and bile secretion. Somatostatin broadly inhibits gastric acid, pancreatic enzyme and bile secretion. VIP increases intestinal secretion and blood flow. GIP and motilin regulate gastric emptying and intestinal motility.
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions to aid in digestion. It secretes trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypolypeptidase to break down proteins and amylase to break down carbohydrates. Lipase, cholesterol esterase, and phospholipase aid in fat digestion. Bicarbonate ions help neutralize stomach acid. The pancreas also secretes trypsin inhibitor to prevent premature digestion of itself by its own enzymes. Secretin stimulates bicarbonate secretion when acidic chyme enters the small intestine.
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and each consists of an inner medulla and outer cortex. The medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine, while the cortex is divided into three layers that produce different hormones: the zona glomerulosa produces mineralocorticoids like aldosterone; the zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids like cortisol; and the zona reticularis produces weak androgens. These hormones work together to regulate fluid balance, metabolism, and other critical bodily functions.
This document summarizes the structure and contraction mechanism of skeletal muscle. It describes the hierarchical structure of muscle from the whole muscle down to the contractile myofibrils. The myofibrils contain repeating units called sarcomeres, which are composed of actin and myosin filaments. Muscle contraction is triggered by a nerve impulse that causes calcium release and the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere. Contraction occurs as long as calcium is present; relaxation happens when calcium is pumped back into storage.
Leydig cells are found in the testicles and produce the hormone testosterone when stimulated by luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland. They release testosterone and other androgens which leads to male characteristics. Leydig cells have a polyhedral shape with a large nucleus and lipid-filled vesicles. They are named after Franz Leydig who discovered them in 1850.
The document discusses thyroid metabolic hormones and their functions. It covers:
- Synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine by the thyroid gland under control of TSH.
- Physiologic functions of thyroid hormones which increase metabolic rate by activating genes in cells.
- Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion by TSH and TRH from the hypothalamus and pituitary, and by negative feedback from thyroid hormones.
- Diseases of the thyroid including hyperthyroidism which causes excessive thyroid hormone secretion and hypothyroidism which causes inadequate secretion.
This document summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying skeletal muscle contraction. It discusses the structures involved like the sarcomere, thick and thin filaments, and T-tubules. The process of muscle contraction involves excitation-contraction coupling where an action potential triggers the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum via T-tubules. Calcium binds to troponin allowing the myosin heads on thick filaments to bind to actin on thin filaments. The power stroke of the myosin heads pulls the thin filaments inward, shortening the sarcomere. Relaxation occurs when calcium is reabsorbed by the sarcoplasmic reticulum allowing detachment of the myosin heads.
Gastric secretion and its regulation involves many hormones. Gastrin stimulates gastric acid secretion from parietal cells. Cholecystokinin stimulates gallbladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion. Secretin increases pancreatic bicarbonate and bile secretion. Somatostatin broadly inhibits gastric acid, pancreatic enzyme and bile secretion. VIP increases intestinal secretion and blood flow. GIP and motilin regulate gastric emptying and intestinal motility.
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate ions to aid in digestion. It secretes trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypolypeptidase to break down proteins and amylase to break down carbohydrates. Lipase, cholesterol esterase, and phospholipase aid in fat digestion. Bicarbonate ions help neutralize stomach acid. The pancreas also secretes trypsin inhibitor to prevent premature digestion of itself by its own enzymes. Secretin stimulates bicarbonate secretion when acidic chyme enters the small intestine.
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and each consists of an inner medulla and outer cortex. The medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine, while the cortex is divided into three layers that produce different hormones: the zona glomerulosa produces mineralocorticoids like aldosterone; the zona fasciculata produces glucocorticoids like cortisol; and the zona reticularis produces weak androgens. These hormones work together to regulate fluid balance, metabolism, and other critical bodily functions.
The pituitary gland has two main parts - the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. The adenohypophysis contains the pars distalis, pars tuberalis, and pars intermedia. The pars distalis is the largest part and contains chromophils like somatotrophs and mammotrophs that secrete growth hormones, as well as chromophobes that secrete ACTH. The neurohypophysis contains the pars nervosa and secretes oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone. The pituitary gland regulates many important bodily functions through the hormones produced by its various cell types located within its distinct anatomical regions.
The document provides information about male and female reproductive physiology:
I. It describes the process of spermatogenesis that occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes to produce sperm over 65-75 days.
II. It explains the hormonal regulation of the male reproductive system including the roles of FSH, LH, and testosterone.
III. It outlines the female reproductive cycle over approximately 28 days, including the ovarian cycle, uterine cycle, and hormonal changes (FSH, LH, estrogens, progesterone) that regulate the growth and shedding of the endometrium.
Gastrointestinal hormones ( Gastrin , secretin and cholecystokinin)Koppala RVS Chaitanya
This document discusses the functions and hormones of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It begins by outlining the main functions of the GI tract, including ingestion, digestion, absorption, excretion, and movement. It then lists the major organs of the digestive system. The document primarily focuses on describing several important GI hormones, including their sites of secretion, targets, actions, and regulatory mechanisms. Specifically discussed are gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and somatostatin.
The endocrine system is composed of organs positioned throughout the body in widely separated locations. Endocrinology is the study of the structure and functioning of the endocrine system.
The document discusses thyroid hormones, their biosynthesis, regulation, actions, and peripheral conversion. Some key points:
- Thyroid hormones T4 and T3 are synthesized in thyroid follicles from iodine and tyrosine. T4 is the main secretory product while T3 is the biologically active form.
- TSH stimulates thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion. T4 is converted to T3 in tissues by deiodinase enzymes.
- Thyroid hormones are transported bound to carrier proteins and the free forms enter cells to increase metabolism.
- Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by a negative feedback loop involving the hypothalamus, pituitary and thyroid gland.
The thymus gland is a small organ behind the breastbone that plays an important role in the immune system. During development, it helps train T cells to fight infections and cancer. After puberty, it begins to shrink and be replaced by fat. The thymus contains different cell types and acts as both a lymphatic and endocrine organ, producing hormones that help T cells mature. Disorders of the thymus can impact immunity and increase autoimmune disease risk.
1) Hormones are organic substances that regulate growth, metabolism and other functions by acting as biochemical messengers. They can be classified based on their chemical composition and target organs.
2) Hormone action involves processes like synergism, permissiveness, antagonism and feedback loops. Lipid-soluble hormones like steroids directly enter cells and activate genes, while water-soluble hormones trigger intracellular signaling cascades.
3) The document discusses the mechanisms and characteristics of hormone action, including the different classes of receptors, signal amplification pathways, and how lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones elicit their effects on target cells and tissues. Negative and positive feedback loops help regulate hormone secretion.
1) Skeletal muscle contraction occurs via the sliding filament theory where the binding of myosin heads to actin causes sarcomeres to shorten.
2) Motor neurons innervate muscle fibers to produce either contraction or relaxation in response to neural signals.
3) Calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to action potentials is key to initiating muscle contraction by exposing binding sites on the actin thin filaments.
The document discusses the human immune system. It has three lines of defense - physical, chemical, and cellular barriers that protect the body. The skin, mucus, stomach acid, and white blood cells comprise these barriers. There are two divisions of the immune system: cell-mediated and antibody-mediated. The cell-mediated system uses phagocytes and T-cells to attack invaders, while the antibody-mediated system uses B-cells to produce antibodies to target specific foreign substances. Immunity can be active, gained from vaccines producing long-term antibodies, or passive, from injecting pre-made antibodies for immediate but short-term protection.
This document discusses receptors and neurons that detect sensory information. It begins by defining perception and describing how sensory information is transmitted from receptors to the central nervous system. It then categorizes the different sensory modalities like touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception. The document goes on to describe the different types of sensory receptors, including their locations, the stimuli they detect, and whether they adapt rapidly or slowly. It provides examples of specific receptors like Meissner corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, and thermoreceptors. In closing, it notes the uneven distribution of receptors in the skin and modalities detected in the skin.
Skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of muscle fibers that contain filaments of actin and myosin. Contraction occurs through a sliding filament mechanism when calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to an action potential, causing the actin and myosin filaments to interact and shorten the muscle. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a key role in muscle contraction by storing and releasing calcium ions in response to electrical signals transmitted via the motor nerve.
The document discusses the intestinal glands and their role in digestion and absorption. It describes the various secretions of the intestinal glands including intestinal juice, enzymes, mucus, and their functions. It also summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and water. Key points covered include the roles of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes in breaking down macronutrients into smaller units for absorption, and the mechanisms of absorption such as active transport and formation of micelles. Conditions that can lead to malabsorption syndrome due to impaired digestion or absorption are also briefly mentioned.
Gastrointestinal Hormones by Pandian M, Dept of Physiology DYPMCKOP, for MBBS...Pandian M
Classify GIT hormones
List the source and functions of different GI hormones
Explain the mechanism of action and regulation of secretion of different GI Hormones
Describe the role of GI hormones in regulation of GI functions
Explain the dysfunctions produced by alteration in secretion of GIT hormones
Spermatogenesis is the process by which sperm are produced in the testes. It begins at puberty and takes approximately 74 days to complete. It occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and involves the transformation of spermatogonia stem cells through meiosis into mature sperm. Sertoli cells provide nourishment and structural support during spermatogenesis. Hormones such as testosterone and FSH control spermatogenesis. Abnormalities in spermatogenesis can lead to male infertility.
1. Sensory receptors detect stimuli from both internal and external environments and transmit this information to the central nervous system via nerve impulses.
2. There are various types of sensory receptors classified by stimulus modality, origin of stimuli, and distribution in the body.
3. The general process of sensation involves stimulation of receptors, transduction of the stimulus into electrochemical signals, impulse generation and conduction to the CNS, and integration of the signals into a sensation.
This document provides an overview of the structure and function of skin and its appendages. It discusses the three layers of skin - the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis - and describes the cellular structure and functions of each layer. It also examines skin appendages like hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands. The document is intended as a reference for the anatomy of skin and its related tissues.
The document discusses the mechanisms of action of different types of hormones. Protein and peptide hormones act through cell surface receptors and use secondary messengers like cAMP or calcium to trigger intracellular signaling cascades. Steroid hormones diffuse into cells and act through nuclear receptors to regulate gene expression. The mechanisms allow hormones to control diverse physiological processes like metabolism, development, and reproduction through feedback loops that precisely regulate hormone production and secretion.
This document summarizes the key characteristics and functions of smooth muscle. Smooth muscle cells are involuntary, spindle-shaped with a single nucleus, and contain more actin than myosin. They lack sarcomeres and striations seen in skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle forms sheets in organ walls, with longitudinal and circular layers involved in peristalsis. It is innervated by the autonomic nervous system and can contract in a slow, graded manner or as a syncytium. Contraction is triggered by calcium binding to calmodulin and activating myosin light chain kinase to phosphorylate myosin heads, forming actin-myosin cross-bridges. Relaxation occurs via myosin light chain phosphatase dephosph
The adrenal gland consists of an outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The cortex contains three zones that each secrete different hormone types: the zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone, the zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids like cortisol, and the zona reticularis secretes androgens. The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines like epinephrine and norepinephrine which modulate stress response. Hormone production is tightly regulated by feedback mechanisms like the HPA axis to maintain homeostasis.
A. Skeletal muscle
B. Smooth muscle
C. Cardiac muscle
The primary identifying characteristics are:
A. Multiple peripheral nuclei
B. No striations
C. Intercalated discs
EVA KIPTOO DENTAL PRESENTATION - Copy.pptxboaznabiswa
The document provides information about the integumentary system (skin). It discusses the key components of the skin including the three layers (epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis), the main cell types found in each layer (keratinocytes, melanocytes, etc.), and the functions of the skin layers and cells. It also describes the appendages of the skin like hair, nails, and glands. In summary, the document outlines the structure and functions of the integumentary system with a focus on its layers, cells, and appendages.
The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, and glands. The skin is the body's largest organ and protects the body from pathogens, injury, heat, light, and helps regulate temperature and store vitamins. The skin has three layers - the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The epidermis is the outer protective layer made of keratinocytes and contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. The dermis lies below the epidermis and contains hair follicles, sweat and oil glands, blood vessels, nerves, and collagen and elastin for strength and flexibility.
The pituitary gland has two main parts - the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis. The adenohypophysis contains the pars distalis, pars tuberalis, and pars intermedia. The pars distalis is the largest part and contains chromophils like somatotrophs and mammotrophs that secrete growth hormones, as well as chromophobes that secrete ACTH. The neurohypophysis contains the pars nervosa and secretes oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone. The pituitary gland regulates many important bodily functions through the hormones produced by its various cell types located within its distinct anatomical regions.
The document provides information about male and female reproductive physiology:
I. It describes the process of spermatogenesis that occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes to produce sperm over 65-75 days.
II. It explains the hormonal regulation of the male reproductive system including the roles of FSH, LH, and testosterone.
III. It outlines the female reproductive cycle over approximately 28 days, including the ovarian cycle, uterine cycle, and hormonal changes (FSH, LH, estrogens, progesterone) that regulate the growth and shedding of the endometrium.
Gastrointestinal hormones ( Gastrin , secretin and cholecystokinin)Koppala RVS Chaitanya
This document discusses the functions and hormones of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It begins by outlining the main functions of the GI tract, including ingestion, digestion, absorption, excretion, and movement. It then lists the major organs of the digestive system. The document primarily focuses on describing several important GI hormones, including their sites of secretion, targets, actions, and regulatory mechanisms. Specifically discussed are gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and somatostatin.
The endocrine system is composed of organs positioned throughout the body in widely separated locations. Endocrinology is the study of the structure and functioning of the endocrine system.
The document discusses thyroid hormones, their biosynthesis, regulation, actions, and peripheral conversion. Some key points:
- Thyroid hormones T4 and T3 are synthesized in thyroid follicles from iodine and tyrosine. T4 is the main secretory product while T3 is the biologically active form.
- TSH stimulates thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion. T4 is converted to T3 in tissues by deiodinase enzymes.
- Thyroid hormones are transported bound to carrier proteins and the free forms enter cells to increase metabolism.
- Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by a negative feedback loop involving the hypothalamus, pituitary and thyroid gland.
The thymus gland is a small organ behind the breastbone that plays an important role in the immune system. During development, it helps train T cells to fight infections and cancer. After puberty, it begins to shrink and be replaced by fat. The thymus contains different cell types and acts as both a lymphatic and endocrine organ, producing hormones that help T cells mature. Disorders of the thymus can impact immunity and increase autoimmune disease risk.
1) Hormones are organic substances that regulate growth, metabolism and other functions by acting as biochemical messengers. They can be classified based on their chemical composition and target organs.
2) Hormone action involves processes like synergism, permissiveness, antagonism and feedback loops. Lipid-soluble hormones like steroids directly enter cells and activate genes, while water-soluble hormones trigger intracellular signaling cascades.
3) The document discusses the mechanisms and characteristics of hormone action, including the different classes of receptors, signal amplification pathways, and how lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones elicit their effects on target cells and tissues. Negative and positive feedback loops help regulate hormone secretion.
1) Skeletal muscle contraction occurs via the sliding filament theory where the binding of myosin heads to actin causes sarcomeres to shorten.
2) Motor neurons innervate muscle fibers to produce either contraction or relaxation in response to neural signals.
3) Calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to action potentials is key to initiating muscle contraction by exposing binding sites on the actin thin filaments.
The document discusses the human immune system. It has three lines of defense - physical, chemical, and cellular barriers that protect the body. The skin, mucus, stomach acid, and white blood cells comprise these barriers. There are two divisions of the immune system: cell-mediated and antibody-mediated. The cell-mediated system uses phagocytes and T-cells to attack invaders, while the antibody-mediated system uses B-cells to produce antibodies to target specific foreign substances. Immunity can be active, gained from vaccines producing long-term antibodies, or passive, from injecting pre-made antibodies for immediate but short-term protection.
This document discusses receptors and neurons that detect sensory information. It begins by defining perception and describing how sensory information is transmitted from receptors to the central nervous system. It then categorizes the different sensory modalities like touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception. The document goes on to describe the different types of sensory receptors, including their locations, the stimuli they detect, and whether they adapt rapidly or slowly. It provides examples of specific receptors like Meissner corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, and thermoreceptors. In closing, it notes the uneven distribution of receptors in the skin and modalities detected in the skin.
Skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of muscle fibers that contain filaments of actin and myosin. Contraction occurs through a sliding filament mechanism when calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in response to an action potential, causing the actin and myosin filaments to interact and shorten the muscle. The sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a key role in muscle contraction by storing and releasing calcium ions in response to electrical signals transmitted via the motor nerve.
The document discusses the intestinal glands and their role in digestion and absorption. It describes the various secretions of the intestinal glands including intestinal juice, enzymes, mucus, and their functions. It also summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and water. Key points covered include the roles of pancreatic and intestinal enzymes in breaking down macronutrients into smaller units for absorption, and the mechanisms of absorption such as active transport and formation of micelles. Conditions that can lead to malabsorption syndrome due to impaired digestion or absorption are also briefly mentioned.
Gastrointestinal Hormones by Pandian M, Dept of Physiology DYPMCKOP, for MBBS...Pandian M
Classify GIT hormones
List the source and functions of different GI hormones
Explain the mechanism of action and regulation of secretion of different GI Hormones
Describe the role of GI hormones in regulation of GI functions
Explain the dysfunctions produced by alteration in secretion of GIT hormones
Spermatogenesis is the process by which sperm are produced in the testes. It begins at puberty and takes approximately 74 days to complete. It occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes and involves the transformation of spermatogonia stem cells through meiosis into mature sperm. Sertoli cells provide nourishment and structural support during spermatogenesis. Hormones such as testosterone and FSH control spermatogenesis. Abnormalities in spermatogenesis can lead to male infertility.
1. Sensory receptors detect stimuli from both internal and external environments and transmit this information to the central nervous system via nerve impulses.
2. There are various types of sensory receptors classified by stimulus modality, origin of stimuli, and distribution in the body.
3. The general process of sensation involves stimulation of receptors, transduction of the stimulus into electrochemical signals, impulse generation and conduction to the CNS, and integration of the signals into a sensation.
This document provides an overview of the structure and function of skin and its appendages. It discusses the three layers of skin - the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis - and describes the cellular structure and functions of each layer. It also examines skin appendages like hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands. The document is intended as a reference for the anatomy of skin and its related tissues.
The document discusses the mechanisms of action of different types of hormones. Protein and peptide hormones act through cell surface receptors and use secondary messengers like cAMP or calcium to trigger intracellular signaling cascades. Steroid hormones diffuse into cells and act through nuclear receptors to regulate gene expression. The mechanisms allow hormones to control diverse physiological processes like metabolism, development, and reproduction through feedback loops that precisely regulate hormone production and secretion.
This document summarizes the key characteristics and functions of smooth muscle. Smooth muscle cells are involuntary, spindle-shaped with a single nucleus, and contain more actin than myosin. They lack sarcomeres and striations seen in skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle forms sheets in organ walls, with longitudinal and circular layers involved in peristalsis. It is innervated by the autonomic nervous system and can contract in a slow, graded manner or as a syncytium. Contraction is triggered by calcium binding to calmodulin and activating myosin light chain kinase to phosphorylate myosin heads, forming actin-myosin cross-bridges. Relaxation occurs via myosin light chain phosphatase dephosph
The adrenal gland consists of an outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The cortex contains three zones that each secrete different hormone types: the zona glomerulosa secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone, the zona fasciculata secretes glucocorticoids like cortisol, and the zona reticularis secretes androgens. The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines like epinephrine and norepinephrine which modulate stress response. Hormone production is tightly regulated by feedback mechanisms like the HPA axis to maintain homeostasis.
A. Skeletal muscle
B. Smooth muscle
C. Cardiac muscle
The primary identifying characteristics are:
A. Multiple peripheral nuclei
B. No striations
C. Intercalated discs
EVA KIPTOO DENTAL PRESENTATION - Copy.pptxboaznabiswa
The document provides information about the integumentary system (skin). It discusses the key components of the skin including the three layers (epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis), the main cell types found in each layer (keratinocytes, melanocytes, etc.), and the functions of the skin layers and cells. It also describes the appendages of the skin like hair, nails, and glands. In summary, the document outlines the structure and functions of the integumentary system with a focus on its layers, cells, and appendages.
The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, and glands. The skin is the body's largest organ and protects the body from pathogens, injury, heat, light, and helps regulate temperature and store vitamins. The skin has three layers - the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The epidermis is the outer protective layer made of keratinocytes and contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. The dermis lies below the epidermis and contains hair follicles, sweat and oil glands, blood vessels, nerves, and collagen and elastin for strength and flexibility.
The skin is the largest organ of the body and is composed of two layers - the epidermis and dermis. The epidermis is the outer layer and the dermis is underneath. The thickness of the skin varies in different parts of the body. The skin has important functions including protection, temperature regulation through sweat and blood flow, sensation, and excretion of wastes.
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of the integumentary system. It describes the two main layers of skin - the epidermis and dermis. The dermis contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands. The dermis regulates body temperature through blood vessel dilation and constriction. Keratinization occurs as cells move from the stratum basale to the stratum corneum. The skin protects the body, regulates temperature and sensation, and produces Vitamin D.
This document provides an overview of the integumentary system, also known as the skin. It discusses the main layers of the skin - the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis - and describes the cells and tissues found in each layer. The epidermis is the outermost layer and contains keratinocytes, melanocytes and other cells. Its five sublayers provide protection and regulate hydration. The dermis below contains collagen, blood vessels and glands. The deepest layer, the hypodermis, comprises fat tissue that insulates the body. Important appendages like hair and nails are also introduced.
The integumentary system consists of the skin and its appendages. The skin protects the body from damage, regulates temperature, and detects sensations. It is composed of two main layers - the epidermis and dermis. The epidermis contains keratinocytes that produce keratin and melanocytes that produce melanin pigment. The dermis contains blood vessels, hair follicles, and glands. Diseases of the skin include acne, albinism, blisters, herpes, rashes, impetigo, psoriasis, rubella, and skin cancer.
The document discusses skin anatomy and skin grafts. It describes the three layers of skin - epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Skin grafts are either full thickness or split thickness and involve completely detaching skin from a donor site and placing it on a host bed. Proper wound preparation is essential for graft survival, ensuring good blood supply and removal of debris. Full thickness grafts resemble natural skin more but have poorer survival rates than split thickness grafts.
The integumentary system consists of the skin and its accessory structures. The skin is made up of three main layers - the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis is the outermost layer and provides protection from pathogens and environmental damage. Below the epidermis is the dermis, which contains blood vessels, hair follicles and glands. The deepest layer is the hypodermis, comprising connective tissue and fat. In addition to protection, the skin regulates temperature and synthesizes vitamin D. Accessory structures include hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands. Skin disorders include wounds, burns and skin cancers like basal cell carcinoma and melanoma.
Skin structures and functions ppt Dr.MumuxMumux Mirani
The skin is the largest organ of the body and consists of three layers - the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is made up of keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells arranged in five layers. The dermis lies below the epidermis and contains hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands, nerves and blood vessels. The subcutaneous layer is made of fat and connective tissue. The skin acts as a protective barrier, regulates body temperature, maintains fluid and electrolyte balance, acts as a blood reservoir and sensory organ, synthesizes vitamin D, and contributes to self-image.
The document discusses the structure and functions of the integumentary system. It describes the layers of the epidermis and dermis, including the cells found in each layer. The main functions of the skin are protection, regulation of body temperature, sensation, and synthesis of vitamin D. Common disorders mentioned include burns, skin cancer, and imbalances in skin pigmentation.
The skin is divided into three main layers - the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis contains 4-5 layers of keratinocytes and other cell types. It acts as a barrier and regulates water balance. The dermis lies underneath and contains collagen, fibroblasts, and vasculature that provide structure and nourish the epidermis. It is divided into the papillary and reticular layers. The hypodermis is made of connective tissue that attaches the skin to underlying structures. Skin appendages like hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and nails are also present. The skin has important protective, sensory, regulatory, and synthetic functions.
The document provides information about human skin anatomy, organization, histology, function and diagnosis. It discusses the key components and layers of the skin including the epidermis, dermis and skin appendages. The epidermis is composed of the basal, spinous, granular and stratum corneum layers. The dermis contains collagen, elastic and ground substance fibers. The skin has important protective, sensory and temperature regulating functions. Common skin lesions and their characteristics are also defined.
The skin is the largest organ of the body and has three main layers - the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis is made of stratified squamous epithelium and provides a protective barrier. It has five layers including the stratum corneum. The dermis contains collagen, elastic fibers, blood vessels, nerves and skin appendages. The hypodermis is a subcutaneous layer containing fat and lobules. Skin has several functions like protection, sensation, temperature regulation and immunity. It also contains appendages like hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands.
The document summarizes the key structures and functions of the integumentary system in 3 paragraphs or less:
The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, and nails. The skin is the largest organ and protects the body from damage, regulates temperature, and detects sensations. It is composed of three layers - the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis contains keratinocytes and other cell types and becomes keratinized to form a protective barrier. Hair grows from follicles in the dermis and comes in different types. Glands in the skin including sweat glands help regulate temperature and sebaceous glands produce oil to moisturize the skin.
This document provides an overview of the structure and functions of the skin and its appendages. It notes that the skin is the largest organ and is composed of three main layers - the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis provides protection and waterproofing and has several layers including the stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum and stratum corneum. The dermis lies underneath and contains blood vessels, nerves and connective tissue. The deepest layer, the hypodermis, stores fat and anchors the skin. The document also describes skin appendages like hair, sebaceous glands, sweat glands and nails, and their structure and functions.
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and glands. The skin has three layers - the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis is made of stratified squamous epithelium and regenerates every 28 days. It contains melanocytes which produce melanin and keratinocytes which produce keratin. The dermis contains blood vessels, hair follicles, and glands. The hypodermis is made of loose connective tissue and fat cells. Skin color is determined by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Appendages include sebaceous glands, sweat glands, hair, hair follicles, and nails.
The skin has two main layers - the epidermis and dermis. The epidermis is made of stratified squamous epithelium and has several sublayers including the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum and stratum germinativum. The dermis lies below the epidermis and contains connective tissue, blood vessels, hair follicles and glands. Skin appendages include hair, sebaceous glands which secrete sebum, sweat glands which help regulate temperature, and nails. The skin provides protection, sensation, regulation of temperature and water, and synthesis of vitamin D.
Body membranes line body cavities and surfaces, and fall into two groups: epithelial and connective tissue membranes. Epithelial membranes include the cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes which contain an epithelial sheet and underlying connective tissue. The skin is the cutaneous membrane and functions to protect the body, regulate temperature, and synthesize vitamin D. The skin has an outer epidermis and deeper dermis layer. Skin appendages like hair, nails, and glands aid homeostasis. Imbalances can include infections and allergies of the skin.
The document discusses the structure and functions of the skin and its role in temperature regulation. It describes the three main layers of the skin - epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis contains keratinocytes, melanocytes and other cell types arranged in multiple layers. The dermis lies below and contains collagen, nerves and blood vessels. The hypodermis is a fatty layer that stores fat and anchors the skin. Skin appendages like hair follicles, sebaceous glands and sweat glands are also discussed. Temperature is regulated through mechanisms like sweating, vasodilation and shivering that are controlled by the hypothalamus to maintain the body's set point. Fever occurs when
The respiratory system exchanges gases through a series of organs. The document describes the key parts and functions of the respiratory system. It focuses on the nose, which warms, moistens, and filters air before it reaches the lungs. It then describes the pharynx and larynx, which continue guiding air through the upper respiratory tract. The larynx contains cartilages like the thyroid and cricoid that support vocal cord function and air passage.
1. The document discusses water, electrolyte, and pH balance in the human body. It describes the different fluid compartments, electrolyte composition and functions, acid-base balance, and mechanisms that regulate water and electrolyte levels.
2. Key points include that 60% of body weight is composed of water stored in intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments. Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and chloride are important for fluid balance, nerve function, and pH regulation. The body maintains acid-base balance through buffer systems like bicarbonate and uses organs like the lungs and kidneys to regulate pH.
3. Imbalances can occur from dehydration, diarrhea, vomiting, or other causes and
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers and pumps blood through the blood vessels. It is surrounded by layers including the outer fibrous pericardium, middle myocardial muscle layer, and inner endocardial lining. Blood flows from the heart through arteries and arterioles, into capillaries where gas exchange occurs, and returns to the heart through veins and venules. Valves in the heart and vessels ensure one-way blood flow. The cardiovascular system circulates blood to supply the body with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste.
Blood is a connective tissue composed of plasma and blood cells that circulates through the body delivering oxygen, nutrients, hormones and other substances to tissues. It transports waste products away from tissues. The main cellular components of blood are red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. White blood cells help defend the body against infection and disease. Platelets assist in blood clotting. Disorders can occur if there are too few or too many blood cells or if the cells are abnormal.
The document discusses endocrine glands, specifically the endocrine gland. It defines endocrine glands as groups of secretory cells surrounded by an extensive network of capillaries that facilitates the diffusion of hormones directly into the bloodstream. Some key endocrine glands discussed include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, and hypothalamus. The pituitary gland regulates other endocrine glands and is divided into the posterior and anterior pituitary. The hypothalamus produces hormones that regulate the anterior pituitary. The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that increase metabolism.
The document provides information about the digestive system, including the organs and processes involved. It describes the main parts of the digestive tract from mouth to anus. It details the layers of the digestive tract walls and explains the roles of the salivary glands, teeth, tongue, and liver and pancreas in digestion. Accessory organs help break down food while the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine further digest and absorb nutrients before waste is eliminated.
The muscular system provides motor power for all body movements through skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscles are voluntary striated muscles attached to bones by tendons that allow movement. Smooth muscles are involuntary and non-striated, found in organs. Cardiac muscle is exclusively in the heart. Each muscle fiber contains contractile myofilaments that slide past each other during contraction. Muscle contraction is stimulated by motor neurons at neuromuscular junctions. Contraction allows movement through pulling bones via tendons attached at muscle origins and insertions.
This document discusses the different types of joints in the human body. It begins by defining a joint and classifying joints by function and structure. The three main types by function are synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), and diarthrosis (freely movable). The three main types by structure are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints. It then provides details on the different types of synovial joints and examples of various joints in the body like the shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, ankle joints. It concludes with a brief description of bursae and fontanels.
The skeletal system consists of bones and other connective tissues that provide structure and protect internal organs. Bones are composed of both organic and inorganic materials, including collagen proteins and hydroxyapatite salts. The skeletal system includes long bones in the limbs, short and flat bones, and irregular bones like those in the spine. Bones are living tissues that contain osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which form, maintain, and break down bone respectively. The skeletal system provides structure, movement, protection, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.
This document discusses human growth and development from conception through adulthood. It defines growth as an increase in body size and weight, while development refers to the acquisition of skills and behaviors. The stages of development include prenatal (embryonic and fetal), infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Prenatal development begins with fertilization and progresses through embryogenesis and fetal stages. After birth, development occurs through infancy, childhood, adolescence, and into adulthood. Nutrition, emotional support, and learning experiences influence growth and development at every stage of life.
The female reproductive system functions to produce eggs and hormones. It includes both external genital organs like the vulva and internal organs like the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones, the fallopian tubes help eggs reach the uterus, and the uterus supports pregnancy and childbirth. The system goes through monthly changes in a menstrual cycle regulated by hormones, culminating in ovulation when an egg is released for possible fertilization.
The male reproductive system consists of organs that produce and transfer mature sperm. The testes produce sperm which travel through the vas deferens, seminal vesicles and prostate gland. These organs combine their secretions to form semen, which contains sperm. During sexual arousal, erectile tissue in the penis fills with blood, causing an erection to allow delivery of semen into the female reproductive tract during intercourse.
The lymphatic system transports lymph fluid and filters pathogens. It includes lymph vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and bone marrow. Lymph fluid contains lymphocytes and drains excess tissue fluid, absorbed fats, and cell debris from tissues. It transports these materials through lymph vessels and lymph nodes which filter the lymph. The spleen, thymus and tonsils are lymphatic organs that help produce and store lymphocytes to fight infection. The document describes the structures and functions of the lymphatic system components in detail.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and blood vessels. The heart has four chambers - the right and left atria receive blood, and the right and left ventricles pump blood out. Blood flows through arteries, capillaries, and veins in a closed circuit. The heart is a muscular pump made of cardiac muscle that is located in the chest cavity. It is surrounded by membranes and tissues that protect it. Valves ensure blood flows in only one direction through the heart and vessels.
Blood is composed of plasma and blood cells suspended in it. Plasma is 55% of blood volume and contains water, proteins, electrolytes, nutrients, waste products, hormones and gases. The three main types of blood cells are red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs) and platelets. RBCs contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. WBCs help fight infection. Blood has many functions including nutrient and waste transport and immune function.
The document summarizes key information about endocrine glands and their hormones. It discusses that endocrine glands are groups of secretory cells that release hormones directly into the bloodstream. The major endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, ovaries, testes, pancreas and pineal gland. Each gland secretes specific hormones that target distant tissues, regulating processes like growth, metabolism, reproduction and homeostasis. Hormone secretion is regulated by negative feedback loops between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
The document discusses the senses and sensory organs. It describes the five special senses - sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. It explains that sensory receptors convert stimuli into nerve impulses. The main sensory receptors are mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors. Each sense organ contains specific receptors - for example, rods and cones in the eye and hair cells in the ear. The document then provides detailed descriptions of the eye, tongue, nose, skin and ear as sensory organs.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the central nervous system to the limbs and organs. It consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves that originate in the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves that branch off of the spinal cord. The cranial nerves have various sensory and motor functions, and the spinal nerves branch into plexuses that innervate different body regions. The autonomic nervous system, a division of the PNS, regulates involuntary functions and has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions that work in opposition to activate "fight or flight" responses or rest and digest functions.
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are covered by three layers of meninges. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. The forebrain includes the cerebrum and diencephalon. The cerebrum is made up of four lobes that control functions like movement, sensation, thought, and memory. The diencephalon contains the thalamus and hypothalamus, which relay sensory information and control autonomic functions respectively. The midbrain relays information between the brain and spinal cord. The hindbrain contains the cerebellum, pons, and medulla, which coordinate movement, relay information, and control vital functions. The spinal
Here is the updated list of Top Best Ayurvedic medicine for Gas and Indigestion and those are Gas-O-Go Syp for Dyspepsia | Lavizyme Syrup for Acidity | Yumzyme Hepatoprotective Capsules etc
Adhd Medication Shortage Uk - trinexpharmacy.comreignlana06
The UK is currently facing a Adhd Medication Shortage Uk, which has left many patients and their families grappling with uncertainty and frustration. ADHD, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a chronic condition that requires consistent medication to manage effectively. This shortage has highlighted the critical role these medications play in the daily lives of those affected by ADHD. Contact : +1 (747) 209 – 3649 E-mail : sales@trinexpharmacy.com
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
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• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Kat...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
TEST BANK For Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, 14th Edition by Bertram G. Katzung, Verified Chapters 1 - 66, Complete Newest Version.
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
Osteoporosis - Definition , Evaluation and Management .pdfJim Jacob Roy
Osteoporosis is an increasing cause of morbidity among the elderly.
In this document , a brief outline of osteoporosis is given , including the risk factors of osteoporosis fractures , the indications for testing bone mineral density and the management of osteoporosis
2. Integumentary System
Integumentary system is an organ of our body which protects the body
from damage.
It consists of skin and its appendages which are nails, hair, sweat gland
and sebaceous gland.
3. Functions Of Integumentary System
It protects the underlying structures from injury and from invasion by microbes.
It contains sensory nerve endings that enable discrimination of pain,
temperature and touch
It is involved in the regulation of body temperature.
It is also a source of vitamin D synthesis.
It excretes wastes.
4. Skin
The skin completely covers the body and is
continuous with the membranes lining the body
orifices.
Largest organ
Constitutes 15-20% of total body mass
Total area of body surface covered by
skin is about 2 m2
Thickness of skin varies from 0.3 mm to 3mm
5. Skin Receptors
Nociceptors- physical, mechanical or chemical stimulus
Merkle’s disc- light touch
Pacinian corpuscles-pressure or fast vibration
ruffini’s end bulb-heat
Krause end bulb-cold
6. Pigmentation of Skin:
Determined by five pigments present at different level and place of skin
1. Melanin (brown)
2. Melanoid (brown)
3. Carotene (yellow to orange)
4. Haemoglobin (purple)
5. Oxyhaemoglobin (red)
7. Functions Of Skin:
1. Protection
2. Sensory
3. Regulation of body temperature
4. Absorption
5. Secretion
6. Excretion
7. Regulation of pH
8. Synthesis
8. The main functions of the skin include:
A. support, nourishment, and sensation.
B. protection, sensory perception, and temperature regulation.
C. fluid transport, sensory perception, and aging regulation.
D. protection, motor response, and filtration.
Which of the following is NOT a sensory receptor of the skin?
A. Meissner corpuscle
B. Apocrine gland
C. Root hair plexus
D. Nociceptor
Which one of the following cell types is responsible for forming the skin’s ability to tan on
exposure to sunlight?
A. Melanocytes.
B. Keratinocytes.
C. Dendrocytes.
D. Lymphocytes.
9. Structure of Skin:
Two layers
a. Superficial layer, the epidermis
b. Deeper layer, the dermis
Below the dermis lies subcutaneous layer or hypodermis
10.
11. The Epidermis:
It is the outer layer of skin formed by
stratified squamous keratinized epithelium.
It does not have blood vessels so nutrition
is provided by capillaries of dermis.
Five layers:
1. Stratum Basale
2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum
5. Stratum corneum
12. 1. Stratum Basale: It is the thickest layer made up of superficially polygonal cells
and in deeper parts columnar cells. The skin color depends on the cells of this
layer which contain melanin pigment.
2. Stratum Spinosum: It is also known as prickle cell layer as cells of this layer
possess spine like cytoplasmic projections.
3. Stratum Granulosum: It is a thin layer with 2-5 row of flattened rhomboidal
cells.
4. Stratum Lucidum: It is made up of flattened epithelial cells. Many cells have
degenerated nucleus and in some cells the nucleus are absent. These cells
exhibit shiny appearance.
5. Stratum Corneum: It is known as horny layer. It is the outermost layer and
consists of dead cells known as keratin cells.
13. Cells of Epidermis:
• Keratinocytes
• Melanocytes
• Dendritic cells of Langerhans
• Cells of Merkel
14. Healthy epidermis depends upon three processes being synchronized:
Desquamation (shedding) of the keratinized cells from the surface.
Effective keratinization of cells approaching the surface.
Continual cell division in the deeper layers with newly formed cells
being pushed upwards to the surface.
15. The Dermis
It is the inner vascular layer of skin made
up of connective tissue and collagen fibers
Two layers:
Papillary layer(outer layer): It projects
into epidermis and contains blood vessels,
lymph vessels and nerve fibers.
Reticular layer(inner layer): It is made
up of elastic and reticular fibers and
consists of mast cells, nerve fibers, lymph
vessels, epidermal appendages and
fibroblast.
16. Subcutaneous Layer Or Hypodermis
It lies below the dermis.
It is a loose connective tissue which
connects skin with internal structures of
the body.
It serves as an insulator to protect the
body from excessive heat or cold of the
environment.
17. Differences Between Epidermis And Dermis
SN Epidermis Dermis
1. It is the outer layer of skin. It is the inner layer of skin.
2. It is avascular. It is vascular.
3. It is formed by keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium.
It is formed by connective tissue
and collagen fibers.
4. It is made up of five layers:
stratum corneum, stratum
lucidum, stratum granulosum,
stratum spinosum and stratum
basale.
It is made up of two layer:
papillary layer and reticular layer.
22. The outermost layer of the skin is the:
A. epidermis.
B. dermis.
C. hypodermis.
D. papillary dermis.
Which of the following layer of skin does not contain blood vessels?
A. Dermis
B. Cutis
C. Epidermis
D. All of above
The layer of epidermis that sheds keratin cells that are constantly replaced is
A. Stratum lucidum
B. Stratum corneum
C. Stratum mucosum
D. Stratum granulosum
23. Stratum corneum is composed of
A. Melanin
B. Granules
C. Keratin cells
D. Squamous cells
In human body, the thickest skin is located on
A. Thigh
B. Buttocks
C. Abdomen
D. Palm and soles
Which part of the skin is often referred as true skin?
A. Stratum corneum
B. Stratum spinosum
C. Dermis
D. Epidermis
24. Regulation Of Body Temperature By Skin
Nervous Control
The temperature regulating center in the hypothalamus is sensitive to the
temperature of circulating blood. The vasomotor center in the medulla
oblongata controls the diameter of small arteries and arterioles. The
vasomotor center is influenced by the temperature of its blood supply and
by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
Activity Of The Sweat Glands
When body temperature is increased by 0.25 to 0.5°C the sweat glands
secrete sweat onto the skin surface. Evaporation of sweat cools the body.
25. Effects Of Vasoconstriction And Vasodilation
As body temperature rises, the arterioles dilate and more blood enters
the capillary network in the skin. The skin is warm and pink in color. In
addition to increasing the amount of sweat produced, the temperature of
the skin rises and more heat is lost by radiation, conduction and
convection.
If the environmental temperature is low or if heat production is
decreased, the arterioles in the dermis are constricted. This reduces blood
flow to the body surface, conserving heat. The skin appears paler and feels
cool.
26. Regulation of Increase in Body Temperature
Body temperature increased
Stimulation of heat loss center (anterior hypothalamus)
No shivering Inhibition of sympathetic activity
Decreased adrenal secretion and metabolic rate Vasodilation of blood vessels suppling skin
Increase in blood flow to skin
Stimulate sweat gland
Increase in sweat production
Evaporation of sweat from skin takes the heat away from the body
Decrease in heat production
Decrease body temperature
Body temperature becomes normal
27. Regulation of Decrease in Body Temperature
Body temperature decreased
Stimulation of heat gain center (posterior hypothalamus)
Shivering Increased sympathetic activity
Increased adrenal secretion and metabolic rate Vasoconstriction of blood vessels suppling skin
Decrease in blood flow to skin
Sweat gland is inactive
Decrease in sweat production
Body heat is conserved
Increase in heat production
Increase body temperature
Body temperature becomes normal
28. Formation of Vitamin D
7-Dehydrocholesterol is a lipid-based substance in the skin and is
converted to vitamin D by sunlight.
This vitamin is used with calcium and phosphate in the formation and
maintenance of bone.
29. The skin begins the production of vitamin D in which of the following
situations? When
A. Exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
B. Signaled to by the hormone PTH.
C. Calcium is present.
D. It adds an hydroxyl group to a cholesterol molecule.
31. Hairs
Hairs grow from hair follicles, downgrowths of epidermal cells into the dermis or
subcutaneous tissue.
At the base of the follicle is a cluster of cells called the hair papilla or bulb.
The part of the hair above the skin is the shaft and the remainder, the root.
Hair color is genetically determined and depends on the amount and type of
melanin present.
White hair is the result of the replacement of melanin by tiny air bubbles.
33. Arrector pili
These are little bundles of smooth muscle fibers attached to the hair
follicles.
Contraction makes the hair stand erect and raises the skin around the
hair, causing ‘goose flesh’ or ‘goose bumps’.
The muscles are stimulated by sympathetic nerve fibers in response to
fear and cold.
34. Sebaceous Glands
These consist of secretory epithelial cells derived from the same tissue as
the hair follicles.
They secrete an oily antimicrobial substance, sebum, a mixture of keratin,
fat, and cellulose debris into the hair follicles and are present in the skin of
all parts of the body except the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.
Sebum keeps the hair soft and pliable and gives it a shiny appearance. It also
prevents drying and cracking of skin, especially on exposure to heat and
sunlight.
35. Sebaceous Gland
The activity of these glands increases at puberty and is less at the extremes
of age, rendering the skin of infants and older adults prone to the effects of
excessive moisture (maceration).
Composition Of Sebum
Free fatty acids, Triglycerides, Squalene, Sterol, waxes and paraffin.
37. Sweat Glands
Sweat glands are widely distributed throughout the skin and are most
numerous in the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, axillae and groins.
They are formed from epithelial cells.
The bodies of the glands lie coiled in the subcutaneous tissue.
There are two types of sweat gland:
Eccrine sweat gland
Apocrine sweat gland
38. Types Of Sweat Glands
Eccrine sweat glands are the more common type and open onto the skin
surface through tiny pores, and the sweat produced here is a clear, watery
fluid important in regulating body temperature.
Apocrine sweat glands open into hair follicles and become active at
puberty. They may play a role in sexual arousal. These glands are found, for
example, in the axilla.
Bacterial decomposition of their secretions causes an unpleasant odor. A
specialized example of this type of gland is the ceruminous gland of the
outer ear, which secretes earwax
40. Sweat Gland continued…..
The most important function of sweat is in the regulation of body
temperature.
Excessive sweating may lead to dehydration and serious depletion of
sodium chloride unless intake of water and salt is appropriately
increased.
Composition Of Sweat
Water, sodium chloride, urea and lactic acid.
41. Nails
Human nails are equivalent to the claws, horns and hooves of animals.
Derived from the same cells as epidermis and hair these are hard, horny keratin
plates that protect the tips of the fingers and toes.
The root of the nail is embedded in the skin and covered by the cuticle, which
forms the hemispherical pale area called the lunula.
The nail plate is the exposed part that has grown out from the nail bed, the
germinative zone of the epidermis.
Finger nails grow more quickly than toe nails and growth is faster when the
environmental temperature is high.
43. Which integumentary system structure is considered an epidermal appendage?
A. Blood vessel
B. Nerve
C. Stratum basale
D. Hair
Sebum is a mixture of:
A. cellulose debris, fat, and keratin.
B. collagen and elastin.
C. watery fluid and sodium.
D. protein, water, and electrolytes.
The sweat glands that are widely distributed throughout the body are:
A. apocrine.
B. eccrine.
C. adipose.
D. sebaceous.
44. Which glands secrete “oil” into a hair follicle?
A. apocrine
B. eccrine
C. ceruminous
D. Sebaceous
What do the apocrine glands of the skin secrete?
A. apocrine
B. ceruminous
C. milk
D. sweat
45.
46. Wound Healing
Conditions required for wound healing
Systemic factors
These include good nutritional status and general health. Infection, impaired
immunity, poor blood supply and systemic conditions, e.g. diabetes mellitus
and cancer, reduce the rate of wound healing.
Local factors
Local factors that facilitate wound healing include a good blood supply to
provide oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products, and freedom
from contamination by, e.g., microbes, foreign bodies or toxic chemicals.
47. Primary Healing (Healing By First Intention)
This type of healing follows minimal destruction of tissue when the
damaged edges of a wound are in close apposition, e.g. a surgical
incision.
There are several overlapping stages in the repair process.
48.
49. Secondary Healing (Healing By Second Intention)
This type of healing follows extensive tissue destruction or when the
edges of a wound cannot be brought into apposition, e.g. varicose ulcers
and pressure (decubitus) ulcers.
The stages of secondary healing are the same as in primary healing;
healing time depends on effective removal of the cause and the size of
the wound.
50. Burns
These may be caused by many types of trauma including: heat, cold,
electricity, ionizing radiation and corrosive chemicals, including strong
acids or alkalis (bases).
Local damage occurs disrupting the structure and functions of the skin.
51. Types Of Burn
First degree when only the epidermis is involved, the surface is moist and there
are signs of inflammation including redness, swelling and pain. There are no
blisters and tissue damage is minimal.
Second degree when the epidermis and upper dermis are affected. In addition
to the signs and symptoms above, blistering is usually present.
Third degree (deep or full thickness) when the epidermis and dermis are
destroyed. These burns are usually relatively painless as the sensory nerve
endings in the dermis are destroyed. After a few days the destroyed tissue
coagulates and forms an eschar, or thick scab, which sloughs off after 2 to 3
weeks.
52. Burns
In circumferential burns, which encircle any area of the body, complications
may arise from constriction of the part by eschar, e.g. respiratory
impairment may follow circumferential burns of the chest, or the circulation
to the distal part of an affected limb may be seriously impaired.
Skin grafting is required except for small injuries.
Healing, which is prolonged, occurs by secondary intention and there is no
regeneration of sweat glands, hair follicles or sebaceous glands.
Resultant scar tissue often limits movement of affected joints.
53. Burns
The extent of burns in adults is roughly estimated using the ‘rule of nines’.
In adults, hypovolaemic shock usually develops when 15% of the surface
area is affected.
Fatality is likely in adults with third degree burns if the surface area affected
is added to the patient’s age and the total is greater than 80.
54. Complications Of Burns
Although burns affect the skin, when extensive, their systemic consequences
can also be life-threatening or fatal.
Dehydration and Hypovolemia
These may occur in extensive burns when there is excessive leakage of water
and plasma proteins from the damaged skin surface.
Shock
This may accompany severe hypovolemia.
Hypothermia
This develops when excessive heat is lost in leakage from burns.
55. Complications Of Burns
Infection
This occurs easily when subcutaneous tissue is exposed to the environment
and may result in septicaemia.
Renal failure
This occurs when the kidney tubules cannot deal with the large amount of
waste from haemolyzed erythrocytes and damaged tissue.
Contractures
These may develop later as fibrous scar tissue contracts distorting joints,
e.g. the hands, restricting their range of motion.
56. Management Of Burns
First Aid
Stop the burning process
Remove the person from source of burn
Removal of cloth
Ensure adequate airway
Remove from smoke
Cover the burn surface with clean dresses as quicklyS as possible
Transfer to hospital for definite treatment
57. People with full thickness burns to more than 20 % of their body are in a life
threatening situation. This is due to which of the following?
A. The body’s inability to thermoregulate.
B. The loss of the ability to produce vitamin D.
C. The buildup of urea and uric acid which would otherwise have been
excreted by the skin.
D. The body’s inability to prevent water loss