This document summarizes a study on improving the mechanical properties of natural fiber fabric reinforced epoxy composites through alkali treatment. Three composites were made with flax, linen, and bamboo fabric reinforced epoxy. Alkali treatment involved immersing the fabrics and fibers in 5% sodium hydroxide solution for 30 minutes. Testing showed alkali treatment decreased tensile strength and modulus of single fibers but increased tensile and flexural strength of the composites by improving fiber-epoxy adhesion. Scanning electron microscopy also showed improved fiber-matrix interfaces after alkali treatment.
Effect of alkali treatment on vibration characteristics and mechanical proper...Libo Yan
In this article, three bio-composites, i.e. flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced epoxy resin, were manufactured using a
vacuum bagging technique. The influence of alkali treatment (with 5 wt% NaOH solution for 30 min) on tensile properties
of flax, linen and bamboo single-strand yarns, surface morphology and mechanical properties (with respect to tensile and
flexural properties) of the composites were investigated. It was found that the failure mechanism of single-strand fibres
under tension consists of fibre breakage and slippage simultaneously. The alkali treatment had a negative effect on the
tensile strength and modulus of the flax, linen and bamboo single-strand yarns. However, after the treatment, the tensile
and flexural properties of all the composites increased, e.g. the tensile and flexural strength of the treated flax/epoxy
composite increased 21.9% and 16.1%, compared to the untreated one. After the treatment in all the composites, the
tensile fractured surfaces exhibited an improvement of fibre/epoxy interfacial adhesion.
Experimental Investigation and Analysis A Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Pol...IJRES Journal
The hybrids composite has emerged and have the potential reinforcement material for composites and thus gain attraction by many researchers. This is mainly due to their applicable benefits have they offer low density, low cost, renewable, biodegradability and environmentally harmless and also comparable mechanical properties with synthetic fiber composites. In the project natural fiber and glass hybrid composites were fabricated by using epoxy resin combination of hand lay-up method and cold press method. Specimen was cut from the fabricated laminate according to the ASTM standard for different experiments for tensile test, flexural text, and impact test. A significant improvement in tensile strength was indicated by the woven fiber glass hybrid composites. In this hybrid composite laminates banana-glass-banana (BGB) and glass-banana-glass (GBG) exhibit higher mechanical properties due to chemical treatment to natural fibers. So, the hybrid composite material shows the highest mechanical properties. This High performance hybrid composite material has extensive engineering applications such as transport industry, aeronautics, naval, automotive industries.
This document proposes research to test the flame retardancy of biocomposites made from polylactic acid reinforced with flax and coir fibers, along with ammonium polyphosphate and expanded graphite as fire retardants. Natural fiber composites are gaining attention for their sustainability over traditional composites like glass fiber, but have poorer flame retardancy. The research aims to characterize the flame retardancy of these biocomposites through testing their thermal decomposition properties and flammability performance.
IRJET- Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Okra and Pineapple Reinforced Comp...IRJET Journal
This document discusses research on the mechanical behavior and analysis of composites made from okra and pineapple fibers reinforced with epoxy resin. It begins with an abstract that outlines the goal of determining the mechanical properties of these natural fiber composites. It then provides background on composites and classifications. The literature review covers previous research on using natural fibers like jute as reinforcements in composites. The document discusses the materials and methods used, including extracting the okra and pineapple fibers and manufacturing composite test samples. It reviews testing of properties like tensile strength, flexural strength, and density. The goal is to understand the mechanical properties of these natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.
Behavior and analytical modeling of natural flax frp tube confined plain conc...Libo Yan
As reinforcement flax fibre has the potential to replace glass fibre in fibre-reinforced polymer, composite and coir fibre
can be used in concrete. To achieve sustainable construction, this study presents an experimental investigation of a flax
fibre-reinforced polymer tube as concrete confinement. Results of 24 flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain
concrete and coir fibre-reinforced concrete cylinders under axial compression are presented. Test results show
that both flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete and fibre-reinforced concrete offer high axial
compressive strength and ductility. A total of 23 existing design- and analysis-oriented models were considered to
predict the ultimate axial compressive strength and strain of flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete
and fibre-reinforced concrete. It was found that a few existing design- and analysis-oriented models predicted the
ultimate strengths of all the flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete and fibre-reinforced concrete
cylinders accurately. However, no strain models considered match the ultimate strains of these specimens. Two new
equations are proposed to evaluate the ultimate axial strain of flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete
and fibre-reinforced concrete.
The Journal of MC Square Scientific Research is published by MC Square Publication on the monthly basis. It aims to publish original research papers devoted to wide areas in various disciplines of science and engineering and their applications in industry. This journal is basically devoted to interdisciplinary research in Science, Engineering and Technology, which can improve the technology being used in industry. The real-life problems involve multi-disciplinary knowledge, and thus strong inter-disciplinary approach is the need of the research.
Fabrication of composite materials by using short pineapple leaf fiber PALF :...ijiert bestjournal
Composite materials (also called composition materials or shorte ned to composites) are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physi cal or chemical properties,that when combined,produce a material with characteristics different from the i ndividual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons:common examples include materials which are stronger,lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials. In the last decades,the use of natural fibers as r einforcement in polymeric composites for technical application has been a research subject of scientist. Interest in natural fibers has increased worldwide due to their low cost,low density,hardness,higher fatigue endurance,good thermal and mechanical resistivity and to their environmental friendliness. The Asian markets have been using natural fibers for many years e.g.,jute is a common reinforcement in India. Natural fibers are increasingly used in automotive and packaging materials. India is an agricultural country and it is the main stay of Indian economy. Thousa nds of tons of different crops are produced but most of their wastes do not have any useful utilization. Agric ultural wastes include wheat husk,rice husk,and their straw,hemp fiber and shells of various dry fruits. These ag ricultural wastes can be used to prepare fiber reinforced polymer composites for commercial use.
The document discusses a study on the effect of stacking sequence on the tribological properties of woven jute-glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites. It summarizes previous literature on natural fiber composites and erosion behavior. The objective of the current work is to study the mechanical properties and erosion wear behavior of hybrid composites with different stacking sequences of jute and glass fibers. Experimental aspects discussed include the materials used, specimen preparation method, and evaluation of erosion rates under varying test parameters.
Effect of alkali treatment on vibration characteristics and mechanical proper...Libo Yan
In this article, three bio-composites, i.e. flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced epoxy resin, were manufactured using a
vacuum bagging technique. The influence of alkali treatment (with 5 wt% NaOH solution for 30 min) on tensile properties
of flax, linen and bamboo single-strand yarns, surface morphology and mechanical properties (with respect to tensile and
flexural properties) of the composites were investigated. It was found that the failure mechanism of single-strand fibres
under tension consists of fibre breakage and slippage simultaneously. The alkali treatment had a negative effect on the
tensile strength and modulus of the flax, linen and bamboo single-strand yarns. However, after the treatment, the tensile
and flexural properties of all the composites increased, e.g. the tensile and flexural strength of the treated flax/epoxy
composite increased 21.9% and 16.1%, compared to the untreated one. After the treatment in all the composites, the
tensile fractured surfaces exhibited an improvement of fibre/epoxy interfacial adhesion.
Experimental Investigation and Analysis A Mechanical Properties of Hybrid Pol...IJRES Journal
The hybrids composite has emerged and have the potential reinforcement material for composites and thus gain attraction by many researchers. This is mainly due to their applicable benefits have they offer low density, low cost, renewable, biodegradability and environmentally harmless and also comparable mechanical properties with synthetic fiber composites. In the project natural fiber and glass hybrid composites were fabricated by using epoxy resin combination of hand lay-up method and cold press method. Specimen was cut from the fabricated laminate according to the ASTM standard for different experiments for tensile test, flexural text, and impact test. A significant improvement in tensile strength was indicated by the woven fiber glass hybrid composites. In this hybrid composite laminates banana-glass-banana (BGB) and glass-banana-glass (GBG) exhibit higher mechanical properties due to chemical treatment to natural fibers. So, the hybrid composite material shows the highest mechanical properties. This High performance hybrid composite material has extensive engineering applications such as transport industry, aeronautics, naval, automotive industries.
This document proposes research to test the flame retardancy of biocomposites made from polylactic acid reinforced with flax and coir fibers, along with ammonium polyphosphate and expanded graphite as fire retardants. Natural fiber composites are gaining attention for their sustainability over traditional composites like glass fiber, but have poorer flame retardancy. The research aims to characterize the flame retardancy of these biocomposites through testing their thermal decomposition properties and flammability performance.
IRJET- Mechanical Behavior and Analysis of Okra and Pineapple Reinforced Comp...IRJET Journal
This document discusses research on the mechanical behavior and analysis of composites made from okra and pineapple fibers reinforced with epoxy resin. It begins with an abstract that outlines the goal of determining the mechanical properties of these natural fiber composites. It then provides background on composites and classifications. The literature review covers previous research on using natural fibers like jute as reinforcements in composites. The document discusses the materials and methods used, including extracting the okra and pineapple fibers and manufacturing composite test samples. It reviews testing of properties like tensile strength, flexural strength, and density. The goal is to understand the mechanical properties of these natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.
Behavior and analytical modeling of natural flax frp tube confined plain conc...Libo Yan
As reinforcement flax fibre has the potential to replace glass fibre in fibre-reinforced polymer, composite and coir fibre
can be used in concrete. To achieve sustainable construction, this study presents an experimental investigation of a flax
fibre-reinforced polymer tube as concrete confinement. Results of 24 flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain
concrete and coir fibre-reinforced concrete cylinders under axial compression are presented. Test results show
that both flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete and fibre-reinforced concrete offer high axial
compressive strength and ductility. A total of 23 existing design- and analysis-oriented models were considered to
predict the ultimate axial compressive strength and strain of flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete
and fibre-reinforced concrete. It was found that a few existing design- and analysis-oriented models predicted the
ultimate strengths of all the flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete and fibre-reinforced concrete
cylinders accurately. However, no strain models considered match the ultimate strains of these specimens. Two new
equations are proposed to evaluate the ultimate axial strain of flax fibre-reinforced polymer tube-confined plain concrete
and fibre-reinforced concrete.
The Journal of MC Square Scientific Research is published by MC Square Publication on the monthly basis. It aims to publish original research papers devoted to wide areas in various disciplines of science and engineering and their applications in industry. This journal is basically devoted to interdisciplinary research in Science, Engineering and Technology, which can improve the technology being used in industry. The real-life problems involve multi-disciplinary knowledge, and thus strong inter-disciplinary approach is the need of the research.
Fabrication of composite materials by using short pineapple leaf fiber PALF :...ijiert bestjournal
Composite materials (also called composition materials or shorte ned to composites) are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physi cal or chemical properties,that when combined,produce a material with characteristics different from the i ndividual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons:common examples include materials which are stronger,lighter or less expensive when compared to traditional materials. In the last decades,the use of natural fibers as r einforcement in polymeric composites for technical application has been a research subject of scientist. Interest in natural fibers has increased worldwide due to their low cost,low density,hardness,higher fatigue endurance,good thermal and mechanical resistivity and to their environmental friendliness. The Asian markets have been using natural fibers for many years e.g.,jute is a common reinforcement in India. Natural fibers are increasingly used in automotive and packaging materials. India is an agricultural country and it is the main stay of Indian economy. Thousa nds of tons of different crops are produced but most of their wastes do not have any useful utilization. Agric ultural wastes include wheat husk,rice husk,and their straw,hemp fiber and shells of various dry fruits. These ag ricultural wastes can be used to prepare fiber reinforced polymer composites for commercial use.
The document discusses a study on the effect of stacking sequence on the tribological properties of woven jute-glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites. It summarizes previous literature on natural fiber composites and erosion behavior. The objective of the current work is to study the mechanical properties and erosion wear behavior of hybrid composites with different stacking sequences of jute and glass fibers. Experimental aspects discussed include the materials used, specimen preparation method, and evaluation of erosion rates under varying test parameters.
IRJET- A Review on the Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibre Reinforced Poly...IRJET Journal
This document reviews the mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. It discusses how the tensile properties of these composites are influenced by fiber loading and surface treatments. The tensile strength generally increases with fiber content up to a maximum, while the Young's modulus continuously increases. However, the hydrophilic nature of natural fibers causes incompatibility with hydrophobic polymer matrices. Surface treatments can make the fibers more hydrophobic and improve adhesion. Alkali treatment and acrylic acid treatment are effective modification methods.
Shellfish shell as a Bio-filler: Preparation, characterization and its effec...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Hybrid Bamboo and Glass Fiber Polymer Composite – A ReviewAM Publications
Hybrid composites are advance conceptual composite materials. These are composite materials are the material which contains two or more different types of natural/synthetic fiber in which one type of fiber could neutralize with what are lacking in the other. Hybridization of natural fibers is stronger and high corrosion resistance than synthetic fibers like glass can improve the various mechanical and chemical useful properties. This paper makes an attempt to set a review on hybrid polymer composites reinforced with glass and bamboo fiber based on their biodegradability. The importance of biodegradability is to develop composite materials which are ecofriendly
IRJET- Hybridization of in Composite MaterialsIRJET Journal
This document discusses hybrid composite materials made from both natural and synthetic fibers to improve mechanical properties. It begins by introducing composite materials and their benefits of high strength and stiffness but lack of ductility. To address this, hybrid composites containing multiple fibers are proposed. Common hybrid configurations include interlayer, yarn-by-yarn, and layer-by-layer designs. Both natural fibers like jute, sisal, and kenaf and synthetic fibers like glass and carbon fibers are discussed. Chemical treatments are used to clean natural fibers and increase bonding to the polymer matrix. The mechanical properties of natural fiber composites are then evaluated based on previous studies, finding properties like strength and stiffness increase with higher fiber content or improved surface treatments
Review of Tribological characteristics of Modified PEEK Compositesvivatechijri
The behavior of and structure with use of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) composites are summarized
here in details. The research progress of friction and wear resistance properties as a tribological charaterstics
of PEEK composites with modified by carbon fiber, other nano scale and micro-scales particles, are also
summarized scopes for further future research ahead are put forward
IRJET- Synthesis and Analyse the Physical Properties of Sugarcane Bagasse Gla...IRJET Journal
This document describes research into synthesizing and analyzing the physical properties of sugarcane bagasse glassfiber epoxy composites. Specimens of the composite material were created using compression molding. The specimens were then tested for their mechanical properties, including tensile strength, flexural strength, impact resistance, and hardness, according to ASTM standards. The results of the mechanical tests on the sugarcane bagasse glassfiber epoxy composite were analyzed and discussed.
This document discusses an experimental study that assessed pine needles as a reinforcing material in polymer composites. Urea-formaldehyde resin was synthesized and optimized as the polymer matrix. Pine needles were used as particle, short fiber, and long fiber reinforcements in the composites. Mechanical testing showed that the tensile strength, compressive strength, and wear resistance of the resin increased significantly when reinforced with pine needles, with particle reinforcement being most effective. Thermal and morphological characterization of the composites was also conducted. The results suggest pine needles have potential for use in natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.
Durability Properties of Banana Fibre Reinforced Fly Ash ConcreteIRJET Journal
This document discusses the durability properties of banana fibre reinforced fly ash concrete when exposed to acid, sulphate, chloride, and high temperatures. The results showed that partially replacing cement with fly ash improved the acid resistance, sulphate resistance, chloride resistance, and fire resistance of the concrete by reducing losses in mass and compressive strength compared to concrete without fly ash. Concrete with a 20% replacement of cement with fly ash showed the best durability performance.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
1. Esthetic archwires made of fiber-reinforced composites are a promising alternative to metallic archwires. They can be manufactured to have a tooth-colored appearance and stiffness properties similar to metals.
2. Fiber-reinforced composites are fabricated using processes like pultrusion where fibers are impregnated with resin and pulled through a die to form the desired shape. Prototypes of fiber-reinforced composite archwires have demonstrated a range of stiffness from flexible to rigid.
3. Coated archwires made of metals like stainless steel and nickel-titanium alloys are also available, with tooth-colored coatings intended to improve esthetics and reduce friction during tooth
EVALUATION OFTENSILE PROPERTIESOF EPOXY RESIN BASED COMPOSITES REINFORCED WIT...IAEME Publication
In recent times the concern for the environmental pollution and the prevention of nonrenewable
and non- biodegradable resources has promoted research in the field of green
technologies, eco friendly, non polluting materials which can maximize energy and resource
savings. In the present work Jute fibres reinforced with biaxial glass fibres in epoxy matrix,
alongside Banana fibres reinforced with biaxial glass fibres in epoxy matrix and Flax fibres
reinforced with biaxial glass fibres in epoxy matrix was prepared and mechanical properties were
evaluated and compared for two weight fractions, the samples were prepared by using the hand
lay-up process and applying pressure at room temperature. The samples were subjected to tensile
testing was performed on the samples to investigate the mechanical properties and to suggest a
material which could compete with synthetic materials and still be easily disposed. Results of
wear test showed that with increasing reinforcement concentration the wear rate decreases but
with increasing speed, sliding distance the wear increases, additional interesting observation was
that banana hybrid composite showed less wear than all the other composites.
IRJET- A Review on Strength Properties of Fibre and Hybrid Fibre Reinforced G...IRJET Journal
This document provides a review of research on the strength properties of fiber and hybrid fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete. It discusses studies that have added various fiber types like glass, polypropylene, and steel fibers to geopolymer concrete mixes. The addition of fibers is found to improve the mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete like compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength by reducing its brittle nature. Hybrid fiber systems using two different fiber types provide further improvements by utilizing the properties of each fiber type. The document compares the results of different studies on fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete.
IRJET- Mechanical Characterization of Glass Fiber Reinforced Composite Co...IRJET Journal
This document discusses research into mechanical characterization of glass fiber reinforced composites containing nanoparticles. Specifically, it investigates adding small amounts (1wt% and 2wt%) of two types of nanoclays (Cloisite 30B and Cloisite 15A) directly into an epoxy resin matrix reinforced with woven glass fibers. The nanoclay-epoxy mixtures were stirred and ultrasonicated to ensure uniform dispersion of nanoparticles. Composite plates were then manufactured via vacuum molding and tested to analyze effects on mechanical properties like fatigue resistance and impact strength. Previous related studies finding improvements from nanoclay additions are also reviewed.
This document provides a review of engineered composite materials that use natural fibers as reinforcement. It discusses the classification and properties of different types of composites, including polymer matrix composites, metal matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites, and bio-matrix composites. The document also reviews the use of natural fibers as an alternative reinforcement to glass fibers in fiber reinforced polymer composites due to their low cost, good mechanical properties, renewability, and biodegradability. However, natural fiber composites have shortfalls related to the hydrophilic nature of the fibers and their incompatibility with hydrophobic polymer matrices. Engineering approaches aim to overcome these issues to improve the performance of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.
IRJET- Study on Hybrid Glass/Carbon Fiber Reinforced Vinyl Ester Polymer Comp...IRJET Journal
This study examines hybrid glass/carbon fiber reinforced vinyl ester polymer composites. Glass fiber and carbon fibers are chosen as reinforcements for their properties, while vinyl ester resin is selected as the polymer matrix. The document provides background on these materials, including that glass fiber is low-cost and isotropic, carbon fiber is very stiff with low density, and vinyl ester resin has high strength and corrosion resistance. Previous research found that hybrid composites can achieve optimized properties by combining different fiber types and that fiber parameters like length, orientation, and diameter influence mechanical characteristics. The goal of this study is to investigate these hybrid composites and how fiber properties affect their mechanics.
This document summarizes research on mechanical behavior of stacking sequences in kenaf and banana fiber reinforced polyester laminate composites. It discusses how natural fiber composites are growing in use due to advantages over synthetic fibers like lower cost and environmental impact. The research aims to develop and test a new class of laminate composites with kenaf and banana fibers in different stacking sequences. Mechanical properties like tensile strength, flexural strength, tensile modulus and impact strength are evaluated to understand the effect of hybridization and stacking sequence on mechanical behavior.
A Study on Mechanical Properties of E-Glass Polypropylene Epoxy and S-Glass P...ijtsrd
There are basic two phase of composite material, in which one is known as matrix material and another one is called reinforcing material. The reinforcing material is embedded over matrix material. The matrix material is continuous phase and reinforcing is discontinuous phase. The reinforcing phase is much harder than matrix phase. In composite material matrix phase removes the stresses between reinforcing phase and also protect from mechanical and environmental damage. The function of reinforcing material is to improve mechanical and thermal properties of composites. Composite are hybrid of two or more material such as reinforced polymer, metal or ceramics. The aim of the present work is to fabricate E-glass epoxy composite and S-glass epoxy composite with polypropylene as filler material. The fabricated laminates are then tested for mechanical properties with varying percentage of filler material. The results obtained for E-glass epoxy composite and S-glass epoxy composites are then compared. The composites with optimum results are recommended. Karthik A. S | Dr. S. V. Gorabal"A Study on Mechanical Properties of E-Glass Polypropylene Epoxy and S-Glass Polypropylene Epoxy Composites" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-5 , August 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd15903.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/15903/a-study-on-mechanical-properties-of-e-glass-polypropylene-epoxy-and-s-glass-polypropylene-epoxy-composites/karthik-a-s
This document reviews the use of natural fibers as reinforcement in sustainable construction materials. It discusses how natural fibers can be used as filler in masonry composites, as reinforcement to improve mechanical properties, and to reduce thermal conductivity. The document examines previous research on using fibers like sawdust, coconut fibers, and others as partial replacements for cement, sand, or aggregate in building materials. While natural fibers provide benefits like low cost and renewability, their use in construction materials requires treatments and further optimization of properties. Overall, the document evaluates the potential for natural fibers to provide sustainable and affordable construction material alternatives.
11.shear strength study of rc beams retrofitted using vinyl ester bondedAlexander Decker
This study investigates the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams retrofitted with vinyl ester bonded glass fiber reinforced polymer (VE-GFRP) sheets and epoxy bonded GFRP sheets. 10 beams were tested - 4 control beams, 2 fully wrapped with VE-GFRP, 2 strip wrapped with VE-GFRP, and 2 of each wrapped with epoxy bonded GFRP. The beams were designed to fail in shear. Testing showed that wrapping beams with GFRP sheets, either fully or strip wrapped, increased the ultimate load capacity. VE-GFRP and epoxy bonded GFRP were applied using different bonding techniques and materials. The VE-GFRP beams exhibited higher load capacities than the control
Effect of High Temperature Curative and Moulding Temperatures on Tensile and ...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes research on engineering thermoplastic ABS composites reinforced with kenaf fibers that have been surface treated and coated with epoxy resin at varying temperatures. The key findings are:
1) Tensile strength increased with increasing epoxy curative loading up to an optimum of 4 wt.%, but then decreased with more curative due to excessive crosslinking.
2) Optimum moulding temperature for tensile strength was 210°C, as higher temperatures started degrading the fibers while lower temperatures provided insufficient melting.
3) Both tensile strain and modulus generally decreased with more epoxy curative or higher moulding temperatures, as the extra processing weakened the fiber
Uncertainty in Improving Durability Aspects and Mechanical Properties of Bamb...IJARIIT
The construction industry uses the most of clean energy and also produces most of the carbon dioxide in the present global world. The production of one ton of steel and concrete emits more than two tonne and one tonne respectively of carbon dioxide whereas production of one tonne of bamboo consumes more than one tonne of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In SAARC countries like India where about two-third of the population live below poverty line, there is a great need of some other suitable construction material in terms of cost, availability and environment friendly. Towards this, many researchers in the past has emphasized on the use of Bamboo as reinforcement. Bamboo offers competitive strength to mass ratio, compared to re-bars. Since it is a natural material, the necessity to understand their long term behaviour regarding its acceptance as a suitable construction material in general is important. Due to the advantageous characteristics of bamboo, efforts should be made to popularize the use of bamboo.
In this study, a review of the existing research work on Bamboo Reinforced Concrete with the emphasis on the various factors, which are considered as demerits in making bamboo reinforced concrete construction, as a tool is presented. This uncertainty study may serve the goal of making the dream of common people, to have their own home, come true.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALI TREATED AGAVE AMERICANA (RAMBAANS) FIBRE REIN...IJARIIT
Composite based on short Agave Americana (Rambaans) fibre (untreated and alkali treated) reinforced epoxy resin using three different fibre length (3 mm, 5 mm, and 10 mm length) are prepared by using open mould technique. The composite thus prepared were subjected to the evaluation of different mechanical properties such as tensile and impact strength. The results obtained suggest that composites reinforced with Agave Americana fibre exhibited better mechanical properties than neat epoxy. All mechanical test showed that alkali treated fibre filled composites withstand more fracture strain than untreated fibre composites.
IRJET- A Review on the Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibre Reinforced Poly...IRJET Journal
This document reviews the mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. It discusses how the tensile properties of these composites are influenced by fiber loading and surface treatments. The tensile strength generally increases with fiber content up to a maximum, while the Young's modulus continuously increases. However, the hydrophilic nature of natural fibers causes incompatibility with hydrophobic polymer matrices. Surface treatments can make the fibers more hydrophobic and improve adhesion. Alkali treatment and acrylic acid treatment are effective modification methods.
Shellfish shell as a Bio-filler: Preparation, characterization and its effec...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Hybrid Bamboo and Glass Fiber Polymer Composite – A ReviewAM Publications
Hybrid composites are advance conceptual composite materials. These are composite materials are the material which contains two or more different types of natural/synthetic fiber in which one type of fiber could neutralize with what are lacking in the other. Hybridization of natural fibers is stronger and high corrosion resistance than synthetic fibers like glass can improve the various mechanical and chemical useful properties. This paper makes an attempt to set a review on hybrid polymer composites reinforced with glass and bamboo fiber based on their biodegradability. The importance of biodegradability is to develop composite materials which are ecofriendly
IRJET- Hybridization of in Composite MaterialsIRJET Journal
This document discusses hybrid composite materials made from both natural and synthetic fibers to improve mechanical properties. It begins by introducing composite materials and their benefits of high strength and stiffness but lack of ductility. To address this, hybrid composites containing multiple fibers are proposed. Common hybrid configurations include interlayer, yarn-by-yarn, and layer-by-layer designs. Both natural fibers like jute, sisal, and kenaf and synthetic fibers like glass and carbon fibers are discussed. Chemical treatments are used to clean natural fibers and increase bonding to the polymer matrix. The mechanical properties of natural fiber composites are then evaluated based on previous studies, finding properties like strength and stiffness increase with higher fiber content or improved surface treatments
Review of Tribological characteristics of Modified PEEK Compositesvivatechijri
The behavior of and structure with use of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) composites are summarized
here in details. The research progress of friction and wear resistance properties as a tribological charaterstics
of PEEK composites with modified by carbon fiber, other nano scale and micro-scales particles, are also
summarized scopes for further future research ahead are put forward
IRJET- Synthesis and Analyse the Physical Properties of Sugarcane Bagasse Gla...IRJET Journal
This document describes research into synthesizing and analyzing the physical properties of sugarcane bagasse glassfiber epoxy composites. Specimens of the composite material were created using compression molding. The specimens were then tested for their mechanical properties, including tensile strength, flexural strength, impact resistance, and hardness, according to ASTM standards. The results of the mechanical tests on the sugarcane bagasse glassfiber epoxy composite were analyzed and discussed.
This document discusses an experimental study that assessed pine needles as a reinforcing material in polymer composites. Urea-formaldehyde resin was synthesized and optimized as the polymer matrix. Pine needles were used as particle, short fiber, and long fiber reinforcements in the composites. Mechanical testing showed that the tensile strength, compressive strength, and wear resistance of the resin increased significantly when reinforced with pine needles, with particle reinforcement being most effective. Thermal and morphological characterization of the composites was also conducted. The results suggest pine needles have potential for use in natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.
Durability Properties of Banana Fibre Reinforced Fly Ash ConcreteIRJET Journal
This document discusses the durability properties of banana fibre reinforced fly ash concrete when exposed to acid, sulphate, chloride, and high temperatures. The results showed that partially replacing cement with fly ash improved the acid resistance, sulphate resistance, chloride resistance, and fire resistance of the concrete by reducing losses in mass and compressive strength compared to concrete without fly ash. Concrete with a 20% replacement of cement with fly ash showed the best durability performance.
IJERA (International journal of Engineering Research and Applications) is International online, ... peer reviewed journal. For more detail or submit your article, please visit www.ijera.com
1. Esthetic archwires made of fiber-reinforced composites are a promising alternative to metallic archwires. They can be manufactured to have a tooth-colored appearance and stiffness properties similar to metals.
2. Fiber-reinforced composites are fabricated using processes like pultrusion where fibers are impregnated with resin and pulled through a die to form the desired shape. Prototypes of fiber-reinforced composite archwires have demonstrated a range of stiffness from flexible to rigid.
3. Coated archwires made of metals like stainless steel and nickel-titanium alloys are also available, with tooth-colored coatings intended to improve esthetics and reduce friction during tooth
EVALUATION OFTENSILE PROPERTIESOF EPOXY RESIN BASED COMPOSITES REINFORCED WIT...IAEME Publication
In recent times the concern for the environmental pollution and the prevention of nonrenewable
and non- biodegradable resources has promoted research in the field of green
technologies, eco friendly, non polluting materials which can maximize energy and resource
savings. In the present work Jute fibres reinforced with biaxial glass fibres in epoxy matrix,
alongside Banana fibres reinforced with biaxial glass fibres in epoxy matrix and Flax fibres
reinforced with biaxial glass fibres in epoxy matrix was prepared and mechanical properties were
evaluated and compared for two weight fractions, the samples were prepared by using the hand
lay-up process and applying pressure at room temperature. The samples were subjected to tensile
testing was performed on the samples to investigate the mechanical properties and to suggest a
material which could compete with synthetic materials and still be easily disposed. Results of
wear test showed that with increasing reinforcement concentration the wear rate decreases but
with increasing speed, sliding distance the wear increases, additional interesting observation was
that banana hybrid composite showed less wear than all the other composites.
IRJET- A Review on Strength Properties of Fibre and Hybrid Fibre Reinforced G...IRJET Journal
This document provides a review of research on the strength properties of fiber and hybrid fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete. It discusses studies that have added various fiber types like glass, polypropylene, and steel fibers to geopolymer concrete mixes. The addition of fibers is found to improve the mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete like compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength by reducing its brittle nature. Hybrid fiber systems using two different fiber types provide further improvements by utilizing the properties of each fiber type. The document compares the results of different studies on fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete.
IRJET- Mechanical Characterization of Glass Fiber Reinforced Composite Co...IRJET Journal
This document discusses research into mechanical characterization of glass fiber reinforced composites containing nanoparticles. Specifically, it investigates adding small amounts (1wt% and 2wt%) of two types of nanoclays (Cloisite 30B and Cloisite 15A) directly into an epoxy resin matrix reinforced with woven glass fibers. The nanoclay-epoxy mixtures were stirred and ultrasonicated to ensure uniform dispersion of nanoparticles. Composite plates were then manufactured via vacuum molding and tested to analyze effects on mechanical properties like fatigue resistance and impact strength. Previous related studies finding improvements from nanoclay additions are also reviewed.
This document provides a review of engineered composite materials that use natural fibers as reinforcement. It discusses the classification and properties of different types of composites, including polymer matrix composites, metal matrix composites, ceramic matrix composites, and bio-matrix composites. The document also reviews the use of natural fibers as an alternative reinforcement to glass fibers in fiber reinforced polymer composites due to their low cost, good mechanical properties, renewability, and biodegradability. However, natural fiber composites have shortfalls related to the hydrophilic nature of the fibers and their incompatibility with hydrophobic polymer matrices. Engineering approaches aim to overcome these issues to improve the performance of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites.
IRJET- Study on Hybrid Glass/Carbon Fiber Reinforced Vinyl Ester Polymer Comp...IRJET Journal
This study examines hybrid glass/carbon fiber reinforced vinyl ester polymer composites. Glass fiber and carbon fibers are chosen as reinforcements for their properties, while vinyl ester resin is selected as the polymer matrix. The document provides background on these materials, including that glass fiber is low-cost and isotropic, carbon fiber is very stiff with low density, and vinyl ester resin has high strength and corrosion resistance. Previous research found that hybrid composites can achieve optimized properties by combining different fiber types and that fiber parameters like length, orientation, and diameter influence mechanical characteristics. The goal of this study is to investigate these hybrid composites and how fiber properties affect their mechanics.
This document summarizes research on mechanical behavior of stacking sequences in kenaf and banana fiber reinforced polyester laminate composites. It discusses how natural fiber composites are growing in use due to advantages over synthetic fibers like lower cost and environmental impact. The research aims to develop and test a new class of laminate composites with kenaf and banana fibers in different stacking sequences. Mechanical properties like tensile strength, flexural strength, tensile modulus and impact strength are evaluated to understand the effect of hybridization and stacking sequence on mechanical behavior.
A Study on Mechanical Properties of E-Glass Polypropylene Epoxy and S-Glass P...ijtsrd
There are basic two phase of composite material, in which one is known as matrix material and another one is called reinforcing material. The reinforcing material is embedded over matrix material. The matrix material is continuous phase and reinforcing is discontinuous phase. The reinforcing phase is much harder than matrix phase. In composite material matrix phase removes the stresses between reinforcing phase and also protect from mechanical and environmental damage. The function of reinforcing material is to improve mechanical and thermal properties of composites. Composite are hybrid of two or more material such as reinforced polymer, metal or ceramics. The aim of the present work is to fabricate E-glass epoxy composite and S-glass epoxy composite with polypropylene as filler material. The fabricated laminates are then tested for mechanical properties with varying percentage of filler material. The results obtained for E-glass epoxy composite and S-glass epoxy composites are then compared. The composites with optimum results are recommended. Karthik A. S | Dr. S. V. Gorabal"A Study on Mechanical Properties of E-Glass Polypropylene Epoxy and S-Glass Polypropylene Epoxy Composites" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-5 , August 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd15903.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/mechanical-engineering/15903/a-study-on-mechanical-properties-of-e-glass-polypropylene-epoxy-and-s-glass-polypropylene-epoxy-composites/karthik-a-s
This document reviews the use of natural fibers as reinforcement in sustainable construction materials. It discusses how natural fibers can be used as filler in masonry composites, as reinforcement to improve mechanical properties, and to reduce thermal conductivity. The document examines previous research on using fibers like sawdust, coconut fibers, and others as partial replacements for cement, sand, or aggregate in building materials. While natural fibers provide benefits like low cost and renewability, their use in construction materials requires treatments and further optimization of properties. Overall, the document evaluates the potential for natural fibers to provide sustainable and affordable construction material alternatives.
11.shear strength study of rc beams retrofitted using vinyl ester bondedAlexander Decker
This study investigates the shear strength of reinforced concrete beams retrofitted with vinyl ester bonded glass fiber reinforced polymer (VE-GFRP) sheets and epoxy bonded GFRP sheets. 10 beams were tested - 4 control beams, 2 fully wrapped with VE-GFRP, 2 strip wrapped with VE-GFRP, and 2 of each wrapped with epoxy bonded GFRP. The beams were designed to fail in shear. Testing showed that wrapping beams with GFRP sheets, either fully or strip wrapped, increased the ultimate load capacity. VE-GFRP and epoxy bonded GFRP were applied using different bonding techniques and materials. The VE-GFRP beams exhibited higher load capacities than the control
Effect of High Temperature Curative and Moulding Temperatures on Tensile and ...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes research on engineering thermoplastic ABS composites reinforced with kenaf fibers that have been surface treated and coated with epoxy resin at varying temperatures. The key findings are:
1) Tensile strength increased with increasing epoxy curative loading up to an optimum of 4 wt.%, but then decreased with more curative due to excessive crosslinking.
2) Optimum moulding temperature for tensile strength was 210°C, as higher temperatures started degrading the fibers while lower temperatures provided insufficient melting.
3) Both tensile strain and modulus generally decreased with more epoxy curative or higher moulding temperatures, as the extra processing weakened the fiber
Uncertainty in Improving Durability Aspects and Mechanical Properties of Bamb...IJARIIT
The construction industry uses the most of clean energy and also produces most of the carbon dioxide in the present global world. The production of one ton of steel and concrete emits more than two tonne and one tonne respectively of carbon dioxide whereas production of one tonne of bamboo consumes more than one tonne of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In SAARC countries like India where about two-third of the population live below poverty line, there is a great need of some other suitable construction material in terms of cost, availability and environment friendly. Towards this, many researchers in the past has emphasized on the use of Bamboo as reinforcement. Bamboo offers competitive strength to mass ratio, compared to re-bars. Since it is a natural material, the necessity to understand their long term behaviour regarding its acceptance as a suitable construction material in general is important. Due to the advantageous characteristics of bamboo, efforts should be made to popularize the use of bamboo.
In this study, a review of the existing research work on Bamboo Reinforced Concrete with the emphasis on the various factors, which are considered as demerits in making bamboo reinforced concrete construction, as a tool is presented. This uncertainty study may serve the goal of making the dream of common people, to have their own home, come true.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKALI TREATED AGAVE AMERICANA (RAMBAANS) FIBRE REIN...IJARIIT
Composite based on short Agave Americana (Rambaans) fibre (untreated and alkali treated) reinforced epoxy resin using three different fibre length (3 mm, 5 mm, and 10 mm length) are prepared by using open mould technique. The composite thus prepared were subjected to the evaluation of different mechanical properties such as tensile and impact strength. The results obtained suggest that composites reinforced with Agave Americana fibre exhibited better mechanical properties than neat epoxy. All mechanical test showed that alkali treated fibre filled composites withstand more fracture strain than untreated fibre composites.
INVESTIGATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF POLYESTER REINFORCED WITH HEMP FIBR...IAEME Publication
This paper includes the study of basic mechanical properties of polymer composites prepared for polyester as matrix and natural fibers (Hemp long fiber and Hemp mat fiber) as reinforced materials with different compositions of 10%, 20% and 30% reinforcement used for patellar implant material. Over the past centuries, there is lot of research works carried out in the medical field and materials science in development of biomaterials for implant applications. So, many different materials are used as implants for replacing of damaged parts
Here the composite material was fabricated using sugarcane bagasse, jute fibre & with glass fibre as a hybrid material and the mechanical properties of this material was studied.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NANOIRON PARTICLES REINFORCED EPOXY/POLYESTER NANOCO...IAEME Publication
We report on synthesis of two highly dissolve nanoparticles viz. Fe2 O3 & f-Fe2 O3using chemical reduction method. Reaction effect was initiated to mix up solution 1 (i.e.Fecl3 6H2 o) into solution 2 (i.e. Fecl2 4H2 o) as one under the occurrence of ammonium to build up nanoiron (NI) particles. Mechanical properties as above mentioned nanoiron particles filled with polyester and epoxy nanocomposites were fabricated to assess the possibility of using this filler as a latest material. Functionalization agent as Methacryloxypropyl was used to prepare f-Fe2 O3 nanoparticles. f-Fe2 O3 nanocomposites of mechanical properties were improved with the help of functionalization when compared with nanocomposites of Fe2 O3 Nanoiron particles functionalization favours the composite fabrication with a curing temperature at low as compared to the as-synthesised nanoparticles filled polyester nanocomposites. Mechanical properties carried out are Hardness, Impact strength, Tensile strength, Flexural strength and Compression strength. Mechanical property values increased due to the homogeneous nanoparticle dispersion and chemical bonding between polyester matrix and nanoparticles. After incorporation nanoiron particles into the polyester resin matrix it becomes magnetically harder. Machines generated mechanical property values were compared and analysed with system generated software analysis of variance (ANOVA) values
2850 20 unit 202 physical and mechanical properties of materialsmattweetman
This document discusses the physical and mechanical properties of materials. It defines key properties like hardness, ductility, malleability, conductivity, and explains the ordering of common materials according to each property. Methods for modifying material properties through heat treating techniques like annealing, case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching are also covered. The document also addresses degradation of materials through corrosion, environmental factors, and means of protecting materials.
The document discusses different types of stainless steel, including their compositions and properties. It begins with an overview of crystallography and allotropes, explaining that iron and steel are crystalline and can exist in different forms. It then covers the four main types of stainless steel: ferritic, austenitic, martensitic, and duplex. For each type, the document describes their typical compositions in terms of chromium, nickel, and other elements, as well as their properties such as corrosion resistance, strength, and magnetic permeability.
A REVIEW ON CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NATURAL FIBER REINFORCED COMP...IAEME Publication
This review paper examines the chemical properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer bonded composites and the processing techniques are compared for the reinforced composite materials. The chemical properties of the different natural fibers composites were compared. Present days natural fibers are attracting many scholars and researchers due to its cost and largely available in nature also processing of these fibers is not hard in comparison to the conventional fibres production. Also, Environmental awareness and a growing concern with the greenhouse effect have triggered the construction, automotive, and packing industries to watch out for eco-friendly materials that can replace conventional synthetic polymeric fibres. Natural fibers seem to be a good alternate because they are readily available in fibrous form and can be extracted from herb leaves at very low costs. By these reasons the natural fibers are trusted over the regular fibers.
This document discusses thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs). TPEs have both thermoplastic and elastomeric properties. They can be melt-processed like thermoplastics but are flexible and elastic like vulcanized rubbers. The most common TPE is a styrene-butadiene block copolymer, which has rigid polystyrene end blocks and soft polybutadiene mid blocks. This structure allows it to behave like a rubber at low temperatures but melt and flow like a thermoplastic at higher temperatures. Common applications of TPEs include automotive parts, medical devices, shoes, and cables due to advantages like recyclability and simpler processing compared to thermoset rubbers
The document provides an overview of plastic materials, their properties, classifications, and applications. It discusses the different types of plastics including thermoplastics, thermosets, crystalline and amorphous polymers. Common plastic materials like polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon and their properties are described. Factors to consider for plastic material selection like mechanical requirements, chemical environment, processing methods and part design are also summarized.
Fibre-reinforced plastic is a composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres, usually glass, carbon, basalt or aramid fibres. The polymer is typically an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic. FRPs are used in industries like aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction due to their high strength, stiffness, and light weight. Common fibres used are glass, carbon, and aramid fibres, with carbon fibre providing the highest strength and stiffness. The fibre reinforcement enhances the mechanical properties of the polymer matrix.
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The document discusses acoustic textiles and summarizes:
1. Nonwovens are preferred for use as acoustic materials due to their porous structure, large surface area, and low production costs.
2. Sound absorption in fibrous materials occurs through frictional losses as sound pressure causes air molecules to oscillate within material interstices, and through momentum and temperature fluctuation losses.
3. A fabric's sound transmission loss increases with frequency, weight per unit area, and air resistance, but decreases with thickness and fiber density. Fabric microstructure also influences transmission loss.
The document summarizes information about ferrous metals and steel production processes. It discusses the characteristics of iron ores and how the blast furnace process is used to produce iron from iron ores. The basic oxygen process and electric arc furnace processes are also summarized as methods for producing steel from iron. Key aspects of these steel production methods include using oxygen and electricity respectively to burn off impurities from iron and produce steel alloys with the desired carbon content. Phase diagrams are also discussed as a way to illustrate the changes in iron and steel structures at different carbon levels and temperatures.
This document discusses the mechanical properties of viscoelastic materials. It covers topics like stress/strain behavior, creep, toughness, reinforcement, and modifiers. It explains how polymer chemistry, structures, and properties influence product performance. Key factors that determine a plastic's mechanical response are intermolecular forces, temperature, time under load, degree of crystallinity, and molecular weight. A plastic can behave as an elastic solid, viscoelastic solid, viscoelastic fluid, or viscous fluid depending on these factors. Tests like tensile testing, impact testing, and dynamic mechanical analysis are used to characterize mechanical properties.
The document discusses advanced manufacturing techniques using plastics and thermoplastics. It begins by describing some limitations of conventional materials and how plastics offer benefits like ease of manufacturing and versatility. It then classifies plastics into thermoplastics, thermosets and elastomers. The bulk of the document focuses on thermoplastics, describing their properties including glass transition temperature, behavior under temperature conditions, orientation, and water absorption. Examples of commonly used thermoplastics are provided along with applications and potential future developments in the field.
This presentation will provide the non-metallurgist with a basic understanding of carbon and low alloy steels. First we'll describe the carbon and low alloy steels by examining the iron-carbon binary phase diagram and understand the basic microstructures as related to carbon content. We'll discuss the nomenclature of the different carbon and alloy steel groups. We will then examine how mechanical properties are influenced through carbon content, alloy additions and heat treatment. We will also discuss the differences in carbon and low alloy steels that are specified as structural steels and high strength-low alloy (HSLA) steels. Finally, we will address the issues of material selection, processing and finishing.
This document discusses different types of natural fibers that can be used to make composites, including plant fibers like jute, banana, and stem fibers; animal fibers like wool and silk; and mineral fibers like asbestos. It provides details on the properties and processing of select natural fibers like jute, banana, and wool fibers. The applications and advantages of natural fiber composites are also mentioned.
The document discusses various fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) composite manufacturing processes. It defines FRP composites and describes common matrix materials like thermoset and thermoplastic resins. Manufacturing methods covered include hand lay-up, spray-up, resin transfer molding (RTM), filament winding, pultrusion, matched-die molding, and reaction injection molding (RIM). Each process is explained along with associated materials, equipment, advantages, disadvantages and applications.
Effect of alkali treatment on vibration characteristics and mechanical proper...Libo Yan
In this article, the effect of alkali treatment (with 5 wt. % sodium hydroxide solution for 30 min) on the compressive,
in-plane shear, impact properties and vibration characteristics of flax- and linen-fabric reinforced epoxy composites was
investigated. Test results show that alkali treatment enhanced the compressive strength and compressive modulus,
in-plane shear strength and shear modulus, and specific impact strength of both flax- and linen-epoxy composites.
However, after the treatment, the impact strength and damping ratio of the flax and linen composites decreased. The
reduction in impact strength and damping ratio is believed to be attributed to the improved fibre/matrix interfacial
adhesion, as analysed by scanning electron microscope.
The document evaluates the mechanical properties of hybrid composite materials made from metallic, carbon, and glass fibers reinforced with a polymer matrix. The composites are produced using hand layup and compression molding. Tensile, impact, flexural, and compression tests will be conducted according to various ASTM standards to determine the mechanical properties of the different fiber combinations. The goal is to develop a hybrid composite that can be used for automobile and sports applications.
ANALYSIS OF THE MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DATE SEED POWDER-BASED COMPOSIT...Barhm Mohamad
The document analyzes the mechanical properties of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy (CFRE) composites reinforced with different weight percentages of date seed powder granules (DSGP). Tensile, flexural, impact, and hardness tests were performed on CFRE composites with 0%, 15%, 25%, and 35% DSGP. The results showed that the 15% DSGP composite had the highest breaking force in tensile testing. The 35% DSGP composite had the highest maximum bending force in flexural testing. The 25% DSGP composite had the highest energy absorption capacity in impact testing and hardness. Overall, the optimal composition for mechanical properties was found to be 15-25% DSGP.
Mechanical Characterization of Biodegradable Linen Fiber CompositesIJMER
Abstract: The conventional materials like iron, mild steel, cast iron etc are having good mechanical properties. Hence they are widely used in structural engineering applications. These conventional materials have some defects like formation of rust, low weight to strength ratio, high production cost. To overcome these defects, engineers started fabricating composite materials. Composites exhibit peculiar properties like different strengths in different directions, rust resistant, high strength to weight ratio, but they pollute the environment. Now the natural fibre composites are widely used in automobile industry. The natural fibres and resins are used to fabricate an eco friendly composite material. Lack of resources and increasing environmental pollution has evoked great interest in the research of materials that are
friendly to our health and environment. Bio polymer composites fabricated from natural fibres is currently
the most promising area in polymer sciences. This is designed to assess the possibility of fibre as reinforcing material in composites. Epoxy resin was made a stiffened panel to conduct tensile test. In this paper it is aimed to explain all possible ways to use natural composites in automobile components. The main advantages of using natural fibers are their degradability and light weight. They are environment friendly and also increase the fuel economy
Mechanical Characterization of Biodegradable Linen Fiber CompositesIJMER
This document discusses the mechanical characterization of biodegradable linen fiber composites. It begins by introducing linen fiber as a natural fiber that is made from flax plants. The document then discusses the properties of linen fiber and describes how linen fiber composites were prepared by layering linen fibers with an epoxy resin matrix. Four composite samples with different numbers of linen fiber layers were made and tested for their mechanical properties under tensile testing. The results of the tensile tests for the first two samples, which contained 4 and 3 linen fiber layers respectively, are presented. Both samples exhibited relatively high yield strengths and stresses.
Characterization of natural fiber reinforced composites bamboo and sisal a re...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology.
Characteristics of Murta Bast Fiber Reinforced Epoxy CompositesIJAEMSJORNAL
In daily applications, the composites may also be found. The most prevalent kind of life is concrete. Concrete is a gravel, sand and cement composite material. The main aim of the study is Characteristics of Murta Bast Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites. Epoxy resin and HV953U Hardensin from a nearby supplier were purchased and used in accordance with the provision. Bisphénol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE) of the araldite AW106 has an epoxy of the same weight as the eq-1 (203–222 g). Increasing assembly of innovation alone is not enough, especially for composites, to overcome the cost barrier. For composites to be cut through with metals, it is crucial that an integrated application be made in plan, material, measure, tooling, quality verification, production and even programming
This document provides an overview of mechanical property evaluation of natural fiber reinforced polymers. It discusses how natural fibers like jute, sisal and hemp can be used to reinforce polymers, giving composites with good mechanical properties. The mechanical properties discussed include tensile, flexural and impact properties. The document also outlines some applications of natural fiber composites in areas like construction, automotive and packaging industries. In conclusion, it states that natural fiber composites possess good mechanical properties and can be used in different applications.
STUDY ON THE INFLUENCE OF FIBER ORIENTATION ON PALF REINFORCED BISPHENOL COMP...IAEME Publication
The main advantage of a composite material over conventional material like a monolithic metal is the
combination of different properties which are seldom found in the conventional material. In recent years natural fibers
appear to be the outstanding materials which come as the viable and abundant substitute for the expensive and
nonrenewable synthetic fiber. Pineapple leaf fiber (PALF) is one of them that have also good potential as reinforcement
in thermoset composite. The objective of the present work is to investigate the effect of fiber orientation on the mechanical properties of PALF reinforced Bisphenol composite and explores the potential of using PALF as reinforcing
material.
This document evaluates the tensile properties of epoxy resin composites reinforced with different natural fibers like jute, banana, and flax fibers, as well as uniaxial glass fibers. Samples were prepared with two different weight fractions using hand lay-up and tested for tensile properties. Results showed that wear rate decreased with higher reinforcement concentration but increased with higher speed and sliding distance. Additionally, banana fiber hybrid composites exhibited less wear than the other composites. The study aimed to design sustainable composite materials that can compete with synthetic materials while being environmentally friendly.
IRJET- Effect of Mercerization of Mechanical Behavior of Banana Fiber Reinfor...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes research on the effect of mercerization (treatment with sodium hydroxide solution) on the mechanical properties of banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites. Two sets of composites were fabricated - one with untreated banana fiber and one with banana fiber treated with NaOH solution. Composites containing 3-15% fiber by weight were tested for tensile strength, flexural strength, hardness, and impact energy. The research aims to study how fiber treatment and fiber content affect mechanical properties.
Experimental Determination of Impact Strength of Aluminium, Borassus Flabelli...IOSRJMCE
The usage of natural fibres like borassus flabellifer fiber, flax, sisal, jute, kenaf, etc. as replacement to manmade fibers in fiber-reinforced composites have increased now a days due to advantages like low density, low cost and biodegradability .In addition to this poor compatibility with the matrix and high absorption content of natural fibers, focus is diverted to fiber reinforced composites. In this research, the standard test method of ASTM D256M is used to prepare specimens for testing Impact strength properties of fiber-resin composites. The test specimen has a constant cross section with tabs bonded at the ends. The specimens were incorporated with borassus flabellifer fiber. Five identical specimens were prepared for each weight by varying fiber content in grams i.e. 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5. Impact strength of fabricated composites were calculated.It is found that the Impact strength is increased with increase in weight of fiber. The Impact strength of pure polyester is also determined experimentally. The impact strength of pure polyester is 12.5 J/m. The Impact strength of fibered composite is 460 J/m (for maximum loading fiber)
Mechanical Characterization of Synthetic/Natural Fibre Polymer Matrix Composi...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes research on evaluating the mechanical properties of composite materials made from epoxy resin reinforced with glass fibers and ramie fibers. Samples were produced using hand layup and compression molding. Tests on the samples found that the specimen with 50% glass fiber and 40% ramie fiber had the highest tensile strength. Equal amounts of glass and ramie fibers showed better flexural strength and hardness. Impact strength was highest with 50% ramie fiber. Grey relational analysis confirmed that the specimen with 50% glass fiber performed best overall based on its mechanical properties.
This document discusses a study on the effect of reinforcing high density polyethylene (HDPE) with keratin fibers from human hair. Short keratin fibers from human hair were used at 1% weight percentage to reinforce an HDPE matrix. The flexural strength and tensile strength of the keratin fiber composite were evaluated and compared to unreinforced HDPE. The goal of the study was to investigate the reinforcement effects of adding keratin fibers from human hair to an HDPE polymer matrix.
Thermal conductivity Characterization of Bamboo fiber reinforced in Epoxy ResinIOSR Journals
Over a past few decades composites, plastics, ceramics have been the dominant engineering material. The areas of applications of composites materials have grown rapidly and have even found new markets. The current challenge is to make the durable in tough conditions to replace other materials and also to make them cost effective .This has resulted in development of many new techniques currently being used in the industry. While the use of composites it is clear choice in many applications but the selection of material will depend on the factor such as working life, lifetime requirement, complexity of product shape produced, saving the term cost. The availability of natural fiber is abundances and also they are very inexpensive when compared to other advanced manmade fibers. The primary advantage of natural fibers are low density, low cost, biodegradability, acceptable specific properties, less wear during extracting as well as manufacturing composites and wide varieties of natural fibers are locally available. The main focus of this investigation is to determine the thermal conductivity of bamboo fiber reinforced in epoxy resin composites. The test samples were prepared as per ASTM standards using simple hand-layup technique at different fiber weight fractions (10%, 20%30%, 40%50%, 60%). Thermal conductivity (K) of the composites material were determined experimentally and is validated by the results obtained by rule of mixture, E-S model and also by finite element modeling
Tensile and Impact Properties of Natural Fiber Hybrid Composite MaterialsIJMER
This paper is a review on the tensile and impact properties of natural fiber hybrid composites.
Natural fibers are having good mechanical properties, high specific strength, low cost, bio-degradable
and easily can recyclable through thermal methods. In this paper two different hybrid composites were
manufactured by compression molding and properties of tensile and impact results are conducted as per
ASTM standards. In this project three different fibers such as sisal, jute and glass with thermosets epoxy
resin used with weight ratio of fiber to resin as 15:15:70.Results showed that sisal/glass hybrid composite
has more tensile and impact strength while comparing to sisal/jute hybrid composite.
Fabrication & Characterization of Bio Composite Materials Based On Sunnhemp F...IJMER
This document summarizes research on the fabrication and characterization of bio-composite materials using sunnhemp fibre. The document discusses how sunnhemp fibre was used to reinforce an epoxy matrix through hand lay-up methods. Various mechanical properties of the bio-composites were tested, including tensile, flexural, and impact properties. The results of the mechanical tests on the bio-composite specimens are presented. Potential applications of the sunnhemp fibre bio-composites are also suggested, such as in fall ceilings, partitions, packaging, automotive interiors, and toys.
A Study on Mechanical Properties of Hemp-Bagasse Fibers Reinforced with Epoxy...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study on the mechanical properties of hemp-bagasse fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composites. Composite laminates were fabricated using hemp, bagasse, and E-glass fibers in epoxy resin. The fibers were treated with alkali before being incorporated into laminates at 10% and 20% volume fractions using hand layup. Tensile, flexural, and hardness tests were conducted according to ASTM standards. The results showed that the 10% volume fraction laminate had higher ultimate tensile strength of 42MPa and the 20% fraction had higher flexural strength of 77.9MPa. Hardness was also evaluated. The study demonstrated that hybrid natural fiber composites can
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Improving the mechanical properties of natural fibre fabric reinforced epoxy composites by alkali treatment
1. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites
http://jrp.sagepub.com/
Improving the mechanical properties of natural fibre fabric reinforced epoxy composites by alkali
treatment
Libo Yan, Nawawi Chouw and Xiaowen Yuan
Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 2012 31: 425 originally published online 21 February 2012
DOI: 10.1177/0731684412439494
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2. Article
Journal of Reinforced Plastics
and Composites
Improving the mechanical properties 31(6) 425–437
! The Author(s) 2012
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DOI: 10.1177/0731684412439494
composites by alkali treatment jrp.sagepub.com
Libo Yan1, Nawawi Chouw1 and Xiaowen Yuan2
Abstract
In this article, three bio-composites, i.e. flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced epoxy resin, were manufactured using a
vacuum bagging technique. The influence of alkali treatment (with 5 wt% NaOH solution for 30 min) on tensile properties
of flax, linen and bamboo single-strand yarns, surface morphology and mechanical properties (with respect to tensile and
flexural properties) of the composites were investigated. It was found that the failure mechanism of single-strand fibres
under tension consists of fibre breakage and slippage simultaneously. The alkali treatment had a negative effect on the
tensile strength and modulus of the flax, linen and bamboo single-strand yarns. However, after the treatment, the tensile
and flexural properties of all the composites increased, e.g. the tensile and flexural strength of the treated flax/epoxy
composite increased 21.9% and 16.1%, compared to the untreated one. After the treatment in all the composites, the
tensile fractured surfaces exhibited an improvement of fibre/epoxy interfacial adhesion.
Keywords
natural fabrics, composite, scanning electron microscopy
Flax, hemp, jute, sisal and bamboo are the most
Introduction popular reinforcement materials in bio-composites
Synthetic fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites because they are cost-effective, have low density with
with high strength and stiffness have been widely used high specific strength and stiffness, and are readily
in the last decade in aerospace and automotive available.7,8 Nevertheless, natural fibres also possess
industries.1 In recent years, the use of bio-fibres to some negative characteristics, i.e. they are highly hydro-
replace synthetic carbon/glass fibres as reinforcement philic and their mechanical and physical properties are
in polymer composites has gained popularity in engi- strongly dependent on the climate, location and
neering applications due to increasing environmental weather; so it is difficult to predict their respective
concern.2,3 The advent and application of nanotechnol- composite properties.9 Natural fibres also have a com-
ogy have generated renewed interest in bio-composites plex structure, consisting of cellulose, hemicelluloses,
which show promising potential as the next generation pectin, lignin and other components.10 Thus, natural
of structural materials.4
In 2003, around 43,000 tonnes of natural fibres were
used by the European automotive industry as 1
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of
composite reinforcement materials.5 In 2010, the Auckland, New Zealand
amount climbed to about 315,000 tonnes, which 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Auckland,
accounted for 13% of the total reinforcement materials New Zealand
(glass, carbon and natural fibres) in fibre-reinforced
composites in European Union.6 The explosive Corresponding author:
Libo Yan, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
growth in bio-composites is indicative of their wider University of Auckland, Level 11, Engineering Building, 20 Symonds
application in the future due to the favourable Street, Auckland 1001, New Zealand
mechanical performance of natural fibres. Email: lyan118@aucklanduni.ac.nz
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3. 426 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 31(6)
fibres as composite reinforcement are not considered This technique is best suited for moulding epoxy
only in the form of monofilament configuration.11 matrix-based composites because of the superior flow
Polymer matrix, reinforced by woven fabric, is the of epoxy.19 As an alternate to the labour-intensive hand
form of composites used most commonly in structural lay-up process, VBT offers composites better unifor-
applications such as aircrafts, boats and automobiles. mity of lay-up, higher fibre-to-resin ratio and better
This is attributed to the fact that the woven fabric strength-to-weight ratio. In particular, theoretically,
allows the control of fibre orientation and quality con- there is no limitation on the size of composites with
trol, good reproducibility and high productivity.12 In this technique, which is critical for practical engineering
these applications, good tensile strength is essential application.
for the composite performance.13 The composite tensile The effect of alkali treatment mainly on monofila-
properties are significantly dependent on the interfacial ment flax and bamboo fibres has been investigated by
bond between the fabric layer and the matrix material, many researchers.14–18 With regard to fibre yarn prop-
as well as the fabric structure. erties, only the untreated yarn was considered.20 To
To enhance the mechanical properties of bio- date, the effect of alkali on single fibre yarn has not
composites by improving the fibre/matrix adhesion, been investigated. This study focuses on the effect of
surface modification including alkali, saline and acety- alkali treatment on the mechanical properties of the
lation has been investigated.7,11,14–16 Among those three single-strand yarns and the corresponding com-
treatments, alkali is widely applied because it is easy posites. To study the surface morphology of the yarns
to operate and cheap. Studies have shown that alkali and the composites, scanning electron microscopy
treatment with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution can (SEM) is used.
significantly increase mechanical strengths of flax
monofilament fibre reinforced composites14,15 and
bamboo monofilament fibre reinforced composites.16 Materials and methods
Kushwaha and Kumar analysed the effect of differ-
ent NaOH solution concentrations on the tensile, flex-
Fibre and epoxy
ural and toughness properties of bamboo mat/epoxy Commercial woven flax, linen and bamboo fabrics were
composites. The optimum result was obtained when used because of their wide availability. The flax fabric
bamboo mat was treated with 5 wt% (by weight) (550 g/m2) was obtained from Libeco, Belgium. The
NaOH solution for 30 min.16 Wong et al. conducted a linen fabric (350 g/m2) and the bamboo fabric (210 g/
study on the mechanical properties of bamboo fibres. m2) were obtained from Hemptech, New Zealand. The
The results showed that 5 wt% NaOH treatment led to structures of fabrics are displayed in Figure 1. The
better tensile properties of bamboo fibres.17 The study epoxy used is the SP High Modulus Prime 20LV
by Wang et al. indicated that 5 wt% or 10 wt% of epoxy system, which is specifically designed for use in
NaOH solution was the appropriate concentration for a variety of resin infusion processes (Table 1).
alkalisation of flax fibres, for improving the mechanical
properties of flax FRPs.18
Alkali treatment
In this article, three epoxy composites reinforced
with flax, linen and bamboo woven fabrics were man- Initially, these fabrics were cut into a size of 400 Â 300
ufactured using a vacuum bagging technique (VBT). mm2. Fibre single-strand yarns were extracted from the
Figure 1. Structures of flax, linen and bamboo woven fabrics.
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4. Yan et al. 427
corresponding fabric. For alkali-treated specimens, then impregnation of the preform with resin in a
these fabrics and yarns were washed three times with flexible bag in which negative pressure is generated by
fresh water to remove contaminants, and then dried at a vacuum pump. Next, the composites were cured at
room temperature for 48 h. The dried fabrics and yarns room temperature for 24 h and placed into the Elecfurn
were then immersed in 5 wt% NaOH solution (20 C) oven for curing at 65 C for 7 h.
for 30 min, followed by washed 10 times with fresh
water and subsequently three times with distilled
water, to remove the remaining sodium hydroxide solu-
Fibre volume fraction
tion. Finally, these fabrics and yarns were dried at 80 C Density of the mixed epoxy given by the supplier was
in an oven for 24 h. 1.08 g/cm3. Composite density was determined by the
The significance of alkali treatment is the disruption buoyancy method using water as the displacement
of hydrogen bonding in the fibre surface, thereby medium based on ASTM D792.24 The void contents
increasing surface roughness. This treatment removes of the composites were determined according to
a certain amount of lignin, wax and oils covering the ASTM D2734.25 After obtaining the density and void
external surface of the fibre cell wall, depolymerises cel- content for each composite, the fibre volume fraction
lulose and exposes the crystallites.21 Addition of for the composite was derived from the fibre/epoxy
sodium hydroxide to natural fibre promotes the ionisa- resin weight ratio and the densities of both fibre and
tion of the hydroxyl group, the alkoxide22 epoxy resin matrix.26 The fibre volume fraction Vf was
calculated using the following equation
Fibre À OH þ NaOH Õ Fibre À OÀ Naþ þ H2 O ð1Þ
1
Vf ¼ 1 À À Vv ð2Þ
The fibre with a higher amount of hydrogen groups 1 þ Vf =Vr
would become more compatible with the epoxy matrix.
Thus, alkaline processing directly influences the where Vv is the void content of composite and Vr the
cellulosic fibril, the degree of polymerisation and the volume of epoxy resin. The calculated fibre volume
extraction of lignin and hemicellulosic compounds.23 fractions of all the untreated and alkali-treated
composites are listed in Table 2. It can be seen that
the fibre volume fractions and thicknesses of all the
Composite fabrication
composites were approximately 55% and 5 mm,
All the composites were manufactured by VBT. It con- respectively.
sists of an initial hand lay-up of a fibre preform and
Tensile test of single-strand yarns
The tensile test was conducted on Instron 5567 machine
Table 1. Properties of epoxy system
according to ASTM D2256 on single-strand yarn
Hardener: specimen in the straight configuration, in the case of
Resin: SP SP PRIME no conditioning.27 The specimens were 150 mm in
PRIME 20LV 20 Slow length and were handled in a manner to avoid any
Mix ratio by weight 100 26 change in twist or any stretching of the specimens.
Viscosity at 20 C (cP) 1010–1070 22–24
Each test was repeated 10 times at the room
temperature and the average values were reported.
Density (g/cm3) 1.123 0.936
Table 2. Physical properties of composites
Thickness of Thickness of Fibre volume
Composites Fabric layers each layer (mm) composites (mm) fraction (%)
Flax/epoxy Untreated 6 0.712 5.049 55.1
Alkali-treated 6 0.705 5.021 55.9
Linen/epoxy Untreated 8 0.510 4.984 54.8
Alkali-treated 8 0.498 5.011 55.3
Bamboo/epoxy Untreated 14 0.312 5.085 55.4
Alkali-treated 14 0.304 5.069 54.2
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5. 428 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 31(6)
Table 3. Tensile properties of untreated/alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo single-strand yarns
Single-strand Density Tensile failure Elongation at Young’s modulus
Single-strand fibre yarn diameter (mm) (g/cm3) stress (MPa) break (%) (GPa)
Flax Untreated 0.708 1.43 Æ 0.09 145.4 Æ 8.4 2.9 Æ 0.3 16.4 Æ 0.4
Alkali-treated 0.703 1.22 Æ 0.05 118.5 Æ 10.3 3.1 Æ 0.4 13.8 Æ 0.5
Linen Untreated 0.514 1.35 Æ 0.04 129.7 Æ 10.1 4.3 Æ 0.2 12.3 Æ 0.6
Alkali-treated 0.506 1.17 Æ 0.13 108.4 Æ 12.2 4.4 Æ 0.5 10.7 Æ 0.4
Bamboo Untreated 0.303 1.26 Æ 0.10 67.5 Æ 5.7 2.8 Æ 0.2 5.4 Æ 0.4
Alkali-treated 0.298 0.85 Æ 0.09 46.8 Æ 6.4 2.8 Æ 0.1 3.9 Æ 0.3
Table 4. Properties of flax and bamboo monofilament fibres in literature
Tensile strength Tensile modulus Elongation at
Fibre Density (g/cm3) (MPa) (GPa) break (%) References
Flax 1.40 400–1800 50–70 2–3 Kessler et al.30 and
Bos et al.31
Bamboo 1.38–1.40 140–800 11–35 1.3–3.6 Defoirdt et al.32
The cross-sectional area of fibre single-strand yarn was
assumed to be circular; the diameter of the yarn was
Scanning electron microscopy
measured with the help of a projector. An Epson Surface topographies of the untreated and alkali-trea-
PowerLiteÕ X12 projector and an Epson DC-11 docu- ted fibre yarn were investigated using an SEM (Philips
ment camera are used to measure the diameter. The XL30S FEG, Netherlands) at room temperature, oper-
projector has Extended Graphics Array (XGA) resolu- ated at 5 kV. The tensile fracture surfaces of the com-
tion. The camera has auto-select output resolution posite samples were also analysed. The sample surfaces
of Super Extended Graphics Array (SXGA), Wide were vacuum-coated by evaporation with platinum
Extended Graphics Array (WXGA) and XGA. before examination.
Tensile test of composites Results and discussion
The flat coupon tensile test was conducted on the
Tensile properties of fibre yarns
Instron 5567 machine according to ASTM D3039 on
plates with a size of 250 Â 25 Â 5 mm3 for each compos- The tensile properties of untreated/alkali-treated flax,
ite.28 The cross-head speed was 2 mm/min. To register linen and bamboo yarns are listed in Table 3. Tensile
the elongation during the test, an extensometer with a properties of flax and bamboo monofilament fibres
gauge was placed on each specimen. For each compos- given in literature are demonstrated in Table 4.30–32
ite, five specimens were tested at room temperature and It is observed that both measured tensile failure stress
the average tensile strength and modulus were obtained and modulus of flax, linen and bamboo single-strand
directly from the machine. yarns are much lower than those of flax and bamboo
monofilament fibres in literature. This is attributed to
the different tensile failure mechanisms between fibre
Three-point bending test of composites
yarn and monofilament fibre. For monofilament fibre,
The flexural test was carried out on the Instron 1185 the failure mechanism is a complex sequence consisting
machine according to ASTM D790 on plates with a size of axial splitting of the technical fibre along its elemen-
of 100 Â 20 Â 5 mm3 for each composite.29 The cross- tary constituents, radial cracking of the elementary
head speed was 2.2 mm/min for each test. The length fibres and multiple fracture of the elementary fibres.33
of support span was 80 mm and the overhang length on The tensile failure of textile fibre yarns is a combination
both sides was 10 mm. For each composite, five speci- of fibre slippage and fibre breakage, as shown in
mens were tested at room temperature and the average Figure 2(b), which shows the flax yarn close to failure.
flexural strength and modulus were obtained directly This is because when spinning fibres to yarns, a number
from the machine. of fibre filaments are twisted into a continuous strand
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6. Yan et al. 429
Figure 2. A single-strand flax yarn specimen in tensile test: (a) before loading and (b) close to failure.
producing radial forces which cause movement of some damage caused by chemical reaction with sodium
of these filaments relative to others, and leads to a hydroxide during the treatment. This damage is consid-
closer packing of all the filaments within any given ered to be caused by a chemical structural change such
cross-section. However, the tensile strength of the that cellulose in the fibre partially changes from crys-
fibre bundle cannot achieve that of the yarn because talline cellulose I into amorphous cellulose II.35
close to failure some fibres break and the rest slip Table 3 also shows that the alkali treatment leads to
(Figure 2(b)). According to Ghosh et al., the tensile the reduction in the diameter and the density of yarn
failure of viscose fibre yarn is strongly dependent on specimens. However, the reduction in fibre weight is
the yarn structure, i.e. the configuration, alignment greater than that in fibre diameter after this treatment.
and packing of constituent fibres in the yarn cross sec-
tion.20 For fabric with loose packing of fibres in the
yarns, the yarn failure mechanism is slippage domi-
Surface morphology of fibre yarns
nated, thus the load-bearing capacity of the slipped Alkali treatment could influence the inner cellulosic
fibre is reduced drastically and the final yarn strength components of the fibre and the non-cellulosic
is poor. components such as hemicelluloses, lignin and pectin
Table 3 depicts that the tensile failure stress of simultaneously. After alkali treatment, the (partial)
untreated flax single-strand yarn is 12.1% and hemicelluloses, lignin and surface impurities such as
115.4% larger than those of untreated linen and waxes and oils were removed from the fibre surface.
bamboo yarns, respectively. The elongation at the Since both diameter and density of alkali-treated yarns
break point of the linen yarn is almost 50% larger decreased (Table 3), it is indicated that the hemicellu-
than that of flax and bamboo yarns. loses, lignin and pectin of the fibres were dissolved by
For the alkali-treated counterparts, the tensile the alkaline solution. The removal of these cementing
strength and tensile modulus of all the three fibre constituents (hemicellulose, lignin and pectin) resulted
yarns decreased. Compared to untreated specimens, in the decrease in tensile properties of fibre yarn by
the alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo yarns experi- reducing the stress transfer between the fibrils.
enced 18.5%, 16.4% and 30.7% decrease in tensile The removal of surface impurities such as waxes
strength and 15.9%, 13.0% and 27.8% decrease in ten- and oils leads to a cleaner and rougher fibre surface
sile modulus, respectively. However, the elongations at than before, as displayed in Figure 3. This rougher
break of alkali-treated flax and linen yarns increased. surface facilitates both mechanical interlocking
A similar result was obtained by Gomes et al.,34 and bonding reaction due to the exposure of the
where a single curaua fibre after alkali treatment hydroxyl groups to epoxy, thereby increasing the
was considered. This fact may attributable to fibre fibre/matrix adhesion.
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7. 430 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 31(6)
decrease of the tensile strength of approximately
Tensile properties of composites 26.4% (Figure 4(a)), and an increase of 25.7% in tensile
Figure 4 presents the tensile properties of net epoxy resin modulus compared to the respective values of net epoxy
and untreated/alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo (Figure 4(b)).
fabric reinforced composites. For untreated specimens The experimental tensile strength and tensile
(Figure 4(a)), the tensile strengths of flax and linen fabric modulus of the untreated composites are compared
reinforced composites increased 64.5% and 44.1%, with their theoretical values obtained from a simply
respectively, compared to pure epoxy (73 MPa). The ten- rule-of-mixture (Table 5). The rule-of-mixture applied
sile moduli of flax and linen fabric reinforced composites for continuous fibre composites assumes equal strain
are 157.1% and 97.1% higher than that of pure epoxy in fibre and matrix and a perfect fibre–matrix bond-
(3.5 GPa), respectively (Figure 4(b)). This indicates that ing. For tensile modulus, the experimental values of
the addition of fabrics increases the tensile strength and all the three composites are slightly less than their
modulus of the composites because a uniform stress dis- theoretical values. The difference is because the
tribution from the epoxy is transferred to the unidirec- rule-of-mixture disregards the fibre/matrix interfacial
tional fibre. The significant increase in tensile moduli of interaction, the contribution of the transverse
flax/epoxy and linen/epoxy composites supports the fol- yarns and variations in fibre alignment. The simply
lowing statement derived from the composite matrix rule-of-mixture overestimates the composite stiffness.
theory that the tensile modulus of fibre-reinforced com- With respect to the tensile strength, the experimental
posite is strongly dependent on the modulus of the fibre values of flax- and linen-epoxy composites are larger
and the matrix, the fibre content and orientation. while that of bamboo-epoxy composite is lower than
However, the addition of bamboo fabric causes a the corresponding predicted value. This comparison
shows that the actual values cannot be obtained
using the simply rule-of-mixture. This is to be
expected because the measured tensile strength
provides only one average value. However, the yarn
tensile strength is very sensitive to the testing condi-
tion, e.g. gauge length and strain rates. A different
gauge length and/or strain rate will lead to other
yarn strength, hence resulting in other theoretical
strength of the composite.
With regard to the tensile strain at failure, only the
value of linen/epoxy composite of 3.7% is larger than
that of pure epoxy, at 3.5%. Both flax/epoxy and
bamboo/epoxy composites have less tensile strains,
which is 3.0% and 2.8%, respectively (Figure 5(c)).
This is because the elongation measured at break of
linen yarn is larger, while those of flax and bamboo
yarns are lower, compared to the pure epoxy. The
decrease in tensile strains at failure of the composites
is due to the smaller elongation at break point of fibre
yarns compared to that of pure epoxy (Table 3).
Additionally, the 14 layers of bamboo fabric in the
composites (Table 2) may result in the epoxy being
insufficient to wet the fabrics entirely and lead to
poor fibre/matrix interfacial bonding, and thus to the
lower tensile properties of the composites.
As shown in Figure 4, the tensile strength and
modulus of all the composites increased due to the
treatment. Compared to the untreated ones, the flax/
epoxy, linen/epoxy and bamboo/epoxy composites
have 21.9%, 18.7% and 32.8% increase in tensile
strength and 13.3%, 8.8% and 13.6% increase in tensile
modulus, respectively.
Figure 3. Surface morphology of untreated and alkali-treated Figure 5 shows the typical tensile stress–strain rela-
single fibre yarns: (a) untreated flax and (b) treated flax. tionship of all the composites. The stress–strain curves
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8. Yan et al. 431
can be divided approximately into two zones. The first thought to correspond to the elastic response of the
zone up to 0.3% strain is a purely elastic behaviour, aligned micro-fibrils to the applied strain and the end
allowing measurement of the modulus. The second of the curve represents the ultimate strength which is
zone is a non-linear zone until leading to the maximum due to fibre fraction and fibre pull-out. There is no
strength. When it reaches the maximum tensile strength, appreciable plastic deformation in the curves after fail-
the curve is followed by a sudden drop, which indicates ure; the crack propagates rapidly without increase in the
the occurrence of a brittle failure. This third part is applied stress when it reaches the peak stress.
Figure 4. Tensile properties of untreated/alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced composites compared to net
epoxy resin.
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9. 432 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 31(6)
Table 5. Comparison of experimental with theoretical tensile properties of untreated composites based on rule of mixture
Measured tensile Theoretical tensile Measured tensile Theoretical tensile
Composites strength (MPa) strength (MPa) Change (%) modulus (GPa) modulus (GPa) Change (%)
Flax/epoxy 120.1 112.9 6.4 9.2 10.5 À12.3
Linen/epoxy 105.2 104.1 1.1 7.0 8.3 À15.6
Bamboo/epoxy 53.7 69.5 À22.7 4.5 4.9 À8.2
ðMeasuredvalue À TheoreticalvalueÞ
Changeð %Þ ¼ Â 100 %
Theoreticalvalue
Figure 5. Typical tensile stress–strain curves for untreated/alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced composites.
All the specimens failed primarily at a single cross result of the brittle nature of the epoxy resin. The gap
section in form of a brittle fracture and exhibited pull- indicated by ‘D’ between the flax fibre and the matrix
out of fibre yarns. It is clear that the fracture crack is represents the fibre debonding, which indicates the loss
perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress and of fibre/matrix interfacial adhesion. Figure 6 clearly
the failure is almost a strainght line. This indicates that shows that the failure of the fibres in the load direction,
failure of the fibre yarns along the load direction, debonding and pull-out, and brittle fracture of the
debonding and pull-out, and brittle fracture of the matrix have been found to govern the failure of fabric
matrix are the main failure mechanisms of the fabric- reinforced polymer composites in tension.
reinforced composites. This will be further discussed in SEM micrographs for tensile fractured surfaces
the next section. of untreated and treated composites are shown in
Figure 7. For untreated composites, Figure 7(a), (c)
Surface morphology of composites tensile fractured and (e) show some noticeable gaps between the fibres
and matrices (indicated by ‘A’, ‘C’ and ‘E’), which are
surface the evidence of poor fibre/matrix adhesion. In contrast,
Figure 6 depicts a typical fracture zone of untreated flax the fibre/matrix adhesion are enhanced after alkali
fabric-reinforced composites in tension. ‘A’ indicates treatment (see the locations indicated by ‘B’, ‘D’ and
the failure of the fibre due to the tensile stress applied. ‘F’ in Figure 7(b), (d) and (f), respectively). Compared
The fibre pull-out with a considerable length is clearly untreated (Figure 7(a)) with treated (Figure 7(b)) flax
visible (B). ‘C’ points to two large cracks due to brittle composites, it is clear that the treated fibre surface is
fracture of the epoxy matrix adjacent to the fibre as a much rougher than that of untreated flax fibre.
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10. Yan et al. 433
pure epoxy because of the enhancement in flexural
strain in the composites.
As illustrated in Figure 8, the alkali treatment
enhances the flexural properties of all three fabric rein-
forced epoxy composites. Compared to the untreated
composites, the flax/epoxy, linen/epoxy and bamboo/
epoxy composites experienced 16.1%, 16.7% and
13.6% enhancement in flexural strength and 7.2%,
9.1% and 6.3% increase in flexural modulus,
respectively.
The improvement of flexural properties of treated
fibre composites is possibly due to the removal
of outer fibre surface; increase cellulose content and
interfacial adhesion by alkali treatment. However, the
results show that the influence of alkali treatment
on flexural properties is less than that on the tensile
properties (Figures 4 and 8). The possible reason is
that the flexural failure mode shows less fibre pull-
Figure 6. SEM micrograph of typical failure modes of untreated out, a consequence of the direction of the applied
flax fabric reinforced composite in tension. A, failure of fibre; stress being perpendicular to the composite laminate
B, fibre pull-out; C, brittle fracture of epoxy matrix and D, in the three-point bending test.
fibre debonding. SEM, scanning electron microscopy.
Flexural failure in FRP is characterised by the pres-
ence of compressive and tensile stresses. No specimen
This leads to better bonding at the fibre/matrix failed by typical delamination during loading and the
interface because alkali removes the impurities and failure mode shows little fibre pull-out in flax and linen
waxy substances from the fibre surface and creates a composites and no fibre pull-out in bamboo compos-
rougher topography which facilitates the mechanical ites. As expected, the crack is always initiated on the
interlocking. Also, the purified fibre surface further tensile side of the laminate and propagates in an
enhances the chemical bonding between the fibre and upward direction to compressive side.
epoxy matrix, because a purified fibre surface enables The typical flexural stress–strain curves of the
more hydrogen bonds to be formed between the hydro- untreated/alkali-treated composites are shown in
xyl groups of the cellulose at one side, and the epoxy Figure 9. Three regions could be defined approxi-
groups at the other side. In addition, it is clear that fibre mately. All the specimens in the first region show a
pull-out dominates the failure mode as displayed in linear relationship between stress and strain, in which
Figure 7(c). More fibre pull-out in tensile fracture the flexural modulus measurement can be performed.
zone indicates the poor fibre/matrix adhesion. As a In the second region, the curves exhibit a non-linear
consequence of the treatment, the fibre/matrix interface pattern before approaching the maximum strength.
bonding quality is improved and leads to better tensile The third region in the curves presents a decreasing
properties of the composites. trend after the maximum flexural strength. These
third parts of the curves are quite different between
flax/epoxy, linen/epoxy composites and bamboo/
epoxy composites. For both untreated/alkali-treated
Flexural properties of composites bamboo/epoxy composites, the post-peak curves go
The flexural properties of untreated/alkali-treated down very rapidly almost in a straight line without
composites are illustrated in Figure 8. Compared to increasing in strains. This indicates that the specimen
pure epoxy (82 MPa), the flexural strength of the breaks into two pieces when the maximum stress is
untreated flax/epoxy composite increased 46.7% and reached, while for untreated/alkali-treated flax and
that of the untreated linen/epoxy composite increased linen composites, the post-peak curves dip with a
30.6%. The flexural moduli of the untreated flax/epoxy, continuous increase in strains; this reveals a ductile
linen/epoxy and bamboo/epoxy composites increased behaviour before fracture of flax and linen composites
100%, 57.1% and 14.3%, respectively. The flax, linen in flexure. The possible reason is that although the flax/
and bamboo composites have 20%, 54.3% and 28.6% epoxy and linen/epoxy specimens are broken when the
enhancement in flexural failure strain, compared to maximum stresses are reached, some fibres are not
pure epoxy (Figure 8(c)). This shows that the flexural broken into two parts; and they still withstand the
strain at failure of the three fibres are larger than that of applied stress.
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11. 434 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 31(6)
Figure 7. SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surfaces of untreated/alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced
composites. ‘A’, ‘C’ and ‘E’, noticeable gaps between fibres and matrices indicating poor fibre/matrix adhesion, and ‘B’, ‘D’ and ‘F’,
small gaps revealing enhanced fibre/matrix adhesion due to alkali treatment. SEM, scanning electron microscopy.
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12. Yan et al. 435
Figure 8. Flexural properties of untreated/alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced composites compared to net
epoxy resin.
mechanical properties of the composites were studied.
The investigation reveals:
Conclusions
Flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced epoxy com- 1. Alkali treatment with 5 wt% NaOH solution has a
posites have been manufactured using the VBT. The negative effect on the tensile strength and modulus
influence of alkali treatment on the tensile properties of single-strand flax, linen and bamboo yarns.
of single-strand yarns, the surface morphologies and The failure mechanism of natural single-strand
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13. 436 Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 31(6)
Figure 9. Typical flexural stress–strain curves for untreated/alkali-treated flax, linen and bamboo fabric reinforced composites.
fibres under tension is the combination of fibre Funding
breakage and slippage.
This research received no specific grant from any funding
2. The alkali treatment significantly increases the ten-
agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
sile strength and modulus, flexural strength and
modulus of all the fabric-reinforced composites.
However, the tensile strain and flexural strain of
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