This study assessed the impact of long-term agrochemical use on soil and water quality in the lower Anambra River Basin in Nigeria. Samples were analyzed for heavy metal content and microbial load. Results found heavy metal levels in soil and runoff water exceeded standards for agriculture and domestic use. Microbial loads in soil samples were also reduced compared to standards. Long-term application of agrochemicals like fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides introduced heavy metals into the soil and water that harmed microbial life and contaminated the environment. Countermeasures like adding organic manure were recommended to remediate soils and improve quality.
Microbiological and physicochemical analyses of top soils obtained from four ...Innspub Net
Several methodologies were utilized to evaluate the microbiological and physico chemical properties of top soil samples bored from four municipal waste dumpsites and a farmland (control sample) all located in Benin City, Edo State. The soil samples were obtained during the month of January, 2013. The mean aerobic bacterial counts for the soil samples ranged from 9.7 × 103 cfu/g for the control soil to 1.80 × 104 cfu/g for the soil sourced from the dump site at Ikheuniro. The mean heterotrophic fungal counts varied from 7.0 × 102 cfu/g for capitol dumpsite to 3.3 × 103 cfu/g for the control soil. Ten (10) microbial isolates were characterized and identified; Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Aeromonas sp., Enterobacter sp., Klebsiella sp. and Staphylococcus sp., Aspergillus sp., Mucor sp., Saccharomyces sp. and Fusarium sp. respectively. Both Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. were the most dominant amongst the bacterial isolates whilst Staphylococcus sp. was the least occurring bacterial isolate. Aspergillus sp. was the highest occurring fungal isolate while the least isolated fungal culture was Saccharomyces sp. The physico chemical results showed values which ranged from 5.60 to 8.08, 164.00 µS/cm to 540.00 µS/cm, 2.378 mg/kg to 3.444 mg/kg, 0.009 mg/kg to 0.016 mg/kg for pH, electrical conductivity, sulphate and cadmium. Despite the positive impacts of the dumped municipal wastes on the microbial and organic properties of the analyzed soils, disposal of municipal wastes in open dump sites is an archaic and unsustainable option in the management of municipal wastes. Get the full articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-1-number-1-september-2013/
Monitoring of Selected Heavy Metals Uptake by Plant around Fagbohun Dumpsite,...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) multidisciplinary peer-reviewed Journal with reputable academics and experts as board member. IOSR-JESTFT is designed for the prompt publication of peer-reviewed articles in all areas of subject. The journal articles will be accessed freely online
Cadmium and lead hazards as occurring with their speciations in periurbain ag...Premier Publishers
Environment pollution hazard awareness is required for less industrialized countries which are faced with increasing periurban agriculture practice however. Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) were characterized around Abidjan city (Bingerville, Port-Bouët and Yopougon) in soil, perched ground water and vegetable crops (Hibiscus and sweet potato). Total amounts and speciations of metals were determined respectively. The sites were mainly differing with pH observed at Yopougon characterized by highest soil content of Pb (40 mg kg-1). In contrast with the low soil contents of metals, plant contaminations were observed in the root for Cd and Pb at Yopougon and Port-Bouët sites respectively with variance involving above and below ground organs as specific contamination of Hibiscus or sweet potato. Skeleton fractions as exchangeable (F1) and carbonate bound (F2) were characterizing these contaminations although additional fraction as oxide bound (F3) Cd and organic (F4) Pb were required respectively for effectiveness. The non-polluted perched groundwater pH, Eh, temperature and O2 concentration were likely concerned by these fractions availability beside that of residual fraction (F5) of Cd. Enhance isomorphic substitution of anionic Pb forms transforming F2 into F5 and the cationic substitutions between Cd and Pb were suggested for pollution management.
Quantification of Heavy Metals using Contamination and Pollution Index in Sel...IJEAB
Many sites in urban cities are used for dumping of domestic, industrial and municipal wastes because of high human population density in the area. Most often, people use these dumpsites for growing of crops without knowing the level of heavy metal contamination in soils of these areas. This study evaluated the quantification and contamination level of heavy metals in some refuse dumpsites in communities of the State Nigeria. Three replicate soil samples were collected from the dumpsites and at 20 m away from the non - dumpsite which do not receive sewage water within the root zone of 0 – 40 cm depth using soil auger sampler. Samples were analysed for soil properties and heavy metal concentrations using standard methods. The concentrations of the studied heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd) were compared with the permissible limits of other countries. Results showed that in the three studied locations, soil pH at dumpsites were 40 .6%, 39.4% and 38.9% higher than the values in the control sites while soil organic carbon were higher in the dumpsites by 50.1%, 31.3% and 41.1% as compared to the control sites. Cu concentrations at the three locations were below the standard limits of United Kingdom, European Union (EU), USA and WHO. The concentrations of the studied heavy metals passed the contamination stage and therefore will pose negative effect on plant and soil environment. Use of the dumpsite for crop cultivation or as compost materials should be avoided and construction of shallow wells near these areas should be discouraged.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The study examined the concentration of heavy metals
in water, soil and vegetables growing wildly on cement-polluted
soil of Rewa city, India. Accumulation of HMs in vegetables
occurs by various sources but soil is considered the major one. In
this study, soil to vegetable transfer factor (TF) for various HMs
were also calculated and data showed that TF values differed
significantly between soil and vegetable, the difference in TF
values among different vegetables may be attributed to
differences in element uptake by different vegetables. However
TF values obtained for all vegetables were below (1) at all sites.
TF were computed to quantify relative differences in
bioavailability of metals to vegetables to identify the efficiency of
a vegetables species to accumulate a HM(s). These factors were
based on roots uptake of metals and discount the foliar
absorption of atmospheric metal deposits. However TF does not
present the risk associated with the metal in any form.
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal ...Angelo Mark Walag
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal zone of Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines were assessed from March to May 2014. Water temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and type of substrate were determined in the study were within the normal range. A modified transect-quadrat method was used in an approximately 14,000 m2 of study area. Seven hundred twenty seven individuals belonging to 15 species were found in the area. These organisms belong to four phyla namely: Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Annelida. The three most abundant organisms found were Coenobita clypeatus, Ophiothrix longipeda, and Cypraea poraria with relative abundance of 73.86%, 4.13% and 3.71% respectively. Most of the macrobenthic fauna identified exhibited a clumped pattern of distribution, while the rest are randomly distributed. The species diversity of the area is 1.19 which is very low compared to reports from related studies.
Use of Autochthonous Organic Inputs for Amelioration of Fluoride Toxicity and...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— An assessment was undertaken to study the combating capacity of autochthonous organic inputs viz. vermicompost, compost and bacterial consortia isolated from different sources viz. oil spillage sludge of petrol pump and rhizosphere of rice plant against the fluoride toxicity under field condition. Brassica campestris L. cv.B9 was selected as a test species. Experiments were carried out in two consecutive years 2012-2013 and 2013-2014 designed as experiment I and experiment II. One unique thing was observed that mustard which were grown under indigenous organic inputs treated plots gave maximum yield under T1 treatment (25 mg Kg-1 F) and was above the control set. Moreover, autochthonous organic inputs were capable of reducing the amount of fluoride content within the different plant parts of mustard. Maximum amount of fluoride was accumulated within the leaves and minimum quantity of fluoride was accumulated within the seed but within the permissible range (< 0.3 mg Kg-1 as recommended by EPA, FAO and WHO). Data were significantly different at 5% level using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Therefore, combination of vermicompost, compost and bacterial consortia acted upon reduction of fluoride level in the crop field of mustard.
Rainy seasonal analysis of Physico-chemical parameters of Mukungwa River at N...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Water availability and quality are important factors that determine not only where people can live, but also the quality of life. The Mukungwa river is affected by rainy season especially at Ngaru point before discharge in Nyabarongo river, where its physico-chemical properties are seasonally changed. This may cause serious problems on all forms of life in the river. Objective of this work was to assess the impacts of rainy season on physico-chemical properties of Mukugwa River before discharging into Nyabarongo River at Ngaru. The parameters such as pH, temperature, turbidity, electric conductivity, total dissolved solids (TSS), phosphates, nitrates, and ammonium were monitored in three rainy seasons: April, 2012; October, 2012 and May, 2017 respectively. In this research, pH, temperature, electric conductivity were analyzed in situ using multifunction pH-meter and others parameters, were analyzed in laboratory using electrometric, volumetric, turbidity tube and colorimetric methods. The measured values for each parameter in three seasons were analyzed using MS Excel, and then compared to their international standards for surface water delivered by World Health Organization (WHO). The findings showed high variation of TSS (134mg/l, 178mg/l, and 582mg/l), turbidity (322NTU, 317NTU and 1560NTU) and ammonium (0.498mg/L, 0.536mg/L and 0.78mg/L) in three rainy seasons assessed. The quality of Mukungwa River needs prevention measures in order to control its pollution by erosion.
Macrobenthic Invertebrate assemblage along gradients of the river Basantar (J...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— A limnological investigation was carried out in River Basantar in the Jammu province of Jammu & Kashmir (India) during the period from December, 2009 to November, 2011 in order to analyse the effect of industrial pollution on the diversity and population density of Macrobenthic invertebrate fauna along the longitudinal profile of the river. A total of 27 macrobenthic invertebrate taxa inhabited the river; among these Arthropoda dominated the macrobenthic community (81.48%, 22 species) followed by Annelida (11.11%, 3 species) and Mollusca (7.41%, 2 species). The Discharge Zone (St II) had the highest mean standing crop of macrobenthic population while the lowest species number. Oligochaetes (Annelida) and Dipterans (Arthropoda) exhibited their abundance at polluted sites whereas Odonates, Ephemeropterans, Hemipterans, Coleopterans (Arthropoda) and Molluscs were abundant at least polluted sites. Tubifex tubifex, Branchiura sowerbyi, Limnodrillus hoffmeisteri, Chironomus, Tubifera, Psychoda and Physa acuta were identified as pollution indicator taxa while Progomphus, Cloeon, Baetis and Gyraulus as sensitive taxa.
Bacteria and Fungi Population of Surface Soils under Various Land Use Types i...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of the School of Agriculture and Agricultural
Technology, Minna, in the month of July 2014. The aim of the study was to estimate the bacteria and
fungi population of three selected vegetation types at three soil depths and correlate microbial counts
with the physicochemical properties of soils. The experiment was a 3 by 3 factorial experiment, arranged
in a completely randomized design. The treatments were vegetation types (fallow, gmelina, and teak)
and three soil depths (0–5 cm, 5–10 cm, and 10–15 cm). Data obtained were subjected to ANOVA while
means were separated using the Student–Newman–Keuls test Linear relationship. The standard pour
plate method was used to estimate bacteria and fungi colony-forming units (CFU) in 1 g soil. Physical
and chemical analyses were carried out by standard laboratory methods. The bacterial and fungal counts
were highest in the gmelina vegetation and least under teak. The 0–5 cm soil depth had the highest
microbial counts. Bacterial population correlated positively and significantly with the fungal population
and organic content while microbial population correlated negatively with soil pH. Gmelina vegetation
produced the highest microbial population followed by fallow and teak in that sequence. Fallow
recorded the narrowest C/N and C/P ratios, respectively, implying N mineralization and P solubilization
while the tree vegetations recorded wider ratios signifying N and P immobilization. It can, therefore, be
inferred from the results obtained that tree vegetations can be under cultivation with much sacrifice in
inorganic N and P fertilizers. Fallow land, on the other hand, will require lower inorganic N and P inputs
and, therefore, has prospects in reduction of environmental pollution and subsequent increase in crop
production.
Geochemical Survey, Health and Environmental Implication of Trace Elements in...Premier Publishers
This study involves the geochemical assessment of trace elements of surface soil samples from Owo area in Ondo State, Nigeria. In environmental studies, chemical elements are often distinguished as lithogenic and anthropogenic based on their sources. The knowledge about their distribution in soils is thus crucial for the assessment of the environmental hazards due to chemical pollution of urban soils. In this area, fourteen (14) soil samples were collected and analyzed for the following trace elements – Zinc(Zn), Copper(Cu), Lead(Pb), Arsenic(As), Cadmium(Cd), Titanium(Ti), Strontium(Sr), Zircon(Zr), Molybdenum(Mo), Silver(Ag), Rubidium (Rb), and Tin(Sn) using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). The background values as determined were as follows: Zn(8.30-8.70ppm), Cu(1.95-2.19ppm), Pb(0.83-0.87ppm) As(0.052-0.054ppm), Cd(0.06-0.07ppm), Ti(0.12-0.14ppm), Sr(0.04-0.05ppm), Zr(0.04-0.05ppm), Mo(0.13-0.14ppm), Ag(0.12 0.13ppm), Rb(0.013-0.014ppm) and Sn(0.07-0.08ppm).The threshold values in (ppm) were: 9.12, 2.69, 0.93, 0.06, 0.07, 0.20, 0.05, 0.06, 0.20, 0.26, 0.02, and 0.11. The increase above the background concentrations is probably anthropogenic. The Anthropogenic Factor (AF) and Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) were determined for Zn, Pb, Cu and As in order to quantify the level of contamination in the soils. The result revealed an average AF of 1.1 and Igeo of -0.44, 1.00, -1.05 and -0.37. This result indicates uncontaminated to slightly contaminated soil condition. The pH values of the soils, ranging from (5.5-7.7) indicate a slightly acidic to slightly alkaline soils owing to the chemical reactions of the anthropogenic additives. Anthropogenic inputs from the few industries in the area were quite minimal, except for municipal and vehicular contributions. Therefore, monitoring programs should be introduced to check the level of environmental degradation that may result from future anthropogenic perturbations.
Assessment of remediation Potentials of maize (Zea mays) on sites co-contamin...IJAEMSJORNAL
Phytoremediation is a promising technology for the remediation of sites co-contaminated with inorganic and organic pollutants. A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the remediation potential of Z.mays in soil co- contaminated with Pb and antracene. Pristine sandy loam soils were polluted with Pb chloride salt and antracene at three different levels (50mg/kg of Pb, 100mg/kg of Pb, and 100mg/kg of Pb+100mg/kg of antracene) and laid out in completely randomized design with 3 replicates. Shoot dry matter weight was significantly reduced (p≤0.05) when compared with control treatments by 40% when exposed to100mg kg-1 of Pb. There was a 48% inhibition of shoot dry matter of Z.mays relative to control treatments when 100 mg Pb kg-1 was mixed with 100 mgkg-1 antracene. Root and shoot metal concentration in Zea mays increased with increasing concentration of Pb. The average Translocation Factor (TF < 1 (0.69) obtained suggests that Zea mays predominantly retains Pb in the root portion of the plant. There was a 5% increase in shoot Pb concentration when soil was contaminated with Pb and antracene. The extractable antracene decreased significantly (p≤0.05) in soil planted with Z.mays as well as in pots without maize plant. This accounted for 65 and 72% of antracene dissipation in planted soil and 40-46% dissipation in unplanted soil. This result suggested that Zeamays is a promising candidate for uptake Pb and dissipation of antracene in co-contaminated soils.
Microbiological and physicochemical analyses of top soils obtained from four ...Innspub Net
Several methodologies were utilized to evaluate the microbiological and physico chemical properties of top soil samples bored from four municipal waste dumpsites and a farmland (control sample) all located in Benin City, Edo State. The soil samples were obtained during the month of January, 2013. The mean aerobic bacterial counts for the soil samples ranged from 9.7 × 103 cfu/g for the control soil to 1.80 × 104 cfu/g for the soil sourced from the dump site at Ikheuniro. The mean heterotrophic fungal counts varied from 7.0 × 102 cfu/g for capitol dumpsite to 3.3 × 103 cfu/g for the control soil. Ten (10) microbial isolates were characterized and identified; Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp., Aeromonas sp., Enterobacter sp., Klebsiella sp. and Staphylococcus sp., Aspergillus sp., Mucor sp., Saccharomyces sp. and Fusarium sp. respectively. Both Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas sp. were the most dominant amongst the bacterial isolates whilst Staphylococcus sp. was the least occurring bacterial isolate. Aspergillus sp. was the highest occurring fungal isolate while the least isolated fungal culture was Saccharomyces sp. The physico chemical results showed values which ranged from 5.60 to 8.08, 164.00 µS/cm to 540.00 µS/cm, 2.378 mg/kg to 3.444 mg/kg, 0.009 mg/kg to 0.016 mg/kg for pH, electrical conductivity, sulphate and cadmium. Despite the positive impacts of the dumped municipal wastes on the microbial and organic properties of the analyzed soils, disposal of municipal wastes in open dump sites is an archaic and unsustainable option in the management of municipal wastes. Get the full articles at: http://www.innspub.net/volume-1-number-1-september-2013/
Monitoring of Selected Heavy Metals Uptake by Plant around Fagbohun Dumpsite,...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) multidisciplinary peer-reviewed Journal with reputable academics and experts as board member. IOSR-JESTFT is designed for the prompt publication of peer-reviewed articles in all areas of subject. The journal articles will be accessed freely online
Cadmium and lead hazards as occurring with their speciations in periurbain ag...Premier Publishers
Environment pollution hazard awareness is required for less industrialized countries which are faced with increasing periurban agriculture practice however. Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) were characterized around Abidjan city (Bingerville, Port-Bouët and Yopougon) in soil, perched ground water and vegetable crops (Hibiscus and sweet potato). Total amounts and speciations of metals were determined respectively. The sites were mainly differing with pH observed at Yopougon characterized by highest soil content of Pb (40 mg kg-1). In contrast with the low soil contents of metals, plant contaminations were observed in the root for Cd and Pb at Yopougon and Port-Bouët sites respectively with variance involving above and below ground organs as specific contamination of Hibiscus or sweet potato. Skeleton fractions as exchangeable (F1) and carbonate bound (F2) were characterizing these contaminations although additional fraction as oxide bound (F3) Cd and organic (F4) Pb were required respectively for effectiveness. The non-polluted perched groundwater pH, Eh, temperature and O2 concentration were likely concerned by these fractions availability beside that of residual fraction (F5) of Cd. Enhance isomorphic substitution of anionic Pb forms transforming F2 into F5 and the cationic substitutions between Cd and Pb were suggested for pollution management.
Quantification of Heavy Metals using Contamination and Pollution Index in Sel...IJEAB
Many sites in urban cities are used for dumping of domestic, industrial and municipal wastes because of high human population density in the area. Most often, people use these dumpsites for growing of crops without knowing the level of heavy metal contamination in soils of these areas. This study evaluated the quantification and contamination level of heavy metals in some refuse dumpsites in communities of the State Nigeria. Three replicate soil samples were collected from the dumpsites and at 20 m away from the non - dumpsite which do not receive sewage water within the root zone of 0 – 40 cm depth using soil auger sampler. Samples were analysed for soil properties and heavy metal concentrations using standard methods. The concentrations of the studied heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd) were compared with the permissible limits of other countries. Results showed that in the three studied locations, soil pH at dumpsites were 40 .6%, 39.4% and 38.9% higher than the values in the control sites while soil organic carbon were higher in the dumpsites by 50.1%, 31.3% and 41.1% as compared to the control sites. Cu concentrations at the three locations were below the standard limits of United Kingdom, European Union (EU), USA and WHO. The concentrations of the studied heavy metals passed the contamination stage and therefore will pose negative effect on plant and soil environment. Use of the dumpsite for crop cultivation or as compost materials should be avoided and construction of shallow wells near these areas should be discouraged.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
The study examined the concentration of heavy metals
in water, soil and vegetables growing wildly on cement-polluted
soil of Rewa city, India. Accumulation of HMs in vegetables
occurs by various sources but soil is considered the major one. In
this study, soil to vegetable transfer factor (TF) for various HMs
were also calculated and data showed that TF values differed
significantly between soil and vegetable, the difference in TF
values among different vegetables may be attributed to
differences in element uptake by different vegetables. However
TF values obtained for all vegetables were below (1) at all sites.
TF were computed to quantify relative differences in
bioavailability of metals to vegetables to identify the efficiency of
a vegetables species to accumulate a HM(s). These factors were
based on roots uptake of metals and discount the foliar
absorption of atmospheric metal deposits. However TF does not
present the risk associated with the metal in any form.
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal ...Angelo Mark Walag
Physico-chemical parameters and macrobenthic invertebrates of the intertidal zone of Gusa, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines were assessed from March to May 2014. Water temperature, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, and type of substrate were determined in the study were within the normal range. A modified transect-quadrat method was used in an approximately 14,000 m2 of study area. Seven hundred twenty seven individuals belonging to 15 species were found in the area. These organisms belong to four phyla namely: Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Annelida. The three most abundant organisms found were Coenobita clypeatus, Ophiothrix longipeda, and Cypraea poraria with relative abundance of 73.86%, 4.13% and 3.71% respectively. Most of the macrobenthic fauna identified exhibited a clumped pattern of distribution, while the rest are randomly distributed. The species diversity of the area is 1.19 which is very low compared to reports from related studies.
Use of Autochthonous Organic Inputs for Amelioration of Fluoride Toxicity and...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— An assessment was undertaken to study the combating capacity of autochthonous organic inputs viz. vermicompost, compost and bacterial consortia isolated from different sources viz. oil spillage sludge of petrol pump and rhizosphere of rice plant against the fluoride toxicity under field condition. Brassica campestris L. cv.B9 was selected as a test species. Experiments were carried out in two consecutive years 2012-2013 and 2013-2014 designed as experiment I and experiment II. One unique thing was observed that mustard which were grown under indigenous organic inputs treated plots gave maximum yield under T1 treatment (25 mg Kg-1 F) and was above the control set. Moreover, autochthonous organic inputs were capable of reducing the amount of fluoride content within the different plant parts of mustard. Maximum amount of fluoride was accumulated within the leaves and minimum quantity of fluoride was accumulated within the seed but within the permissible range (< 0.3 mg Kg-1 as recommended by EPA, FAO and WHO). Data were significantly different at 5% level using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Therefore, combination of vermicompost, compost and bacterial consortia acted upon reduction of fluoride level in the crop field of mustard.
Rainy seasonal analysis of Physico-chemical parameters of Mukungwa River at N...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Water availability and quality are important factors that determine not only where people can live, but also the quality of life. The Mukungwa river is affected by rainy season especially at Ngaru point before discharge in Nyabarongo river, where its physico-chemical properties are seasonally changed. This may cause serious problems on all forms of life in the river. Objective of this work was to assess the impacts of rainy season on physico-chemical properties of Mukugwa River before discharging into Nyabarongo River at Ngaru. The parameters such as pH, temperature, turbidity, electric conductivity, total dissolved solids (TSS), phosphates, nitrates, and ammonium were monitored in three rainy seasons: April, 2012; October, 2012 and May, 2017 respectively. In this research, pH, temperature, electric conductivity were analyzed in situ using multifunction pH-meter and others parameters, were analyzed in laboratory using electrometric, volumetric, turbidity tube and colorimetric methods. The measured values for each parameter in three seasons were analyzed using MS Excel, and then compared to their international standards for surface water delivered by World Health Organization (WHO). The findings showed high variation of TSS (134mg/l, 178mg/l, and 582mg/l), turbidity (322NTU, 317NTU and 1560NTU) and ammonium (0.498mg/L, 0.536mg/L and 0.78mg/L) in three rainy seasons assessed. The quality of Mukungwa River needs prevention measures in order to control its pollution by erosion.
Macrobenthic Invertebrate assemblage along gradients of the river Basantar (J...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— A limnological investigation was carried out in River Basantar in the Jammu province of Jammu & Kashmir (India) during the period from December, 2009 to November, 2011 in order to analyse the effect of industrial pollution on the diversity and population density of Macrobenthic invertebrate fauna along the longitudinal profile of the river. A total of 27 macrobenthic invertebrate taxa inhabited the river; among these Arthropoda dominated the macrobenthic community (81.48%, 22 species) followed by Annelida (11.11%, 3 species) and Mollusca (7.41%, 2 species). The Discharge Zone (St II) had the highest mean standing crop of macrobenthic population while the lowest species number. Oligochaetes (Annelida) and Dipterans (Arthropoda) exhibited their abundance at polluted sites whereas Odonates, Ephemeropterans, Hemipterans, Coleopterans (Arthropoda) and Molluscs were abundant at least polluted sites. Tubifex tubifex, Branchiura sowerbyi, Limnodrillus hoffmeisteri, Chironomus, Tubifera, Psychoda and Physa acuta were identified as pollution indicator taxa while Progomphus, Cloeon, Baetis and Gyraulus as sensitive taxa.
Bacteria and Fungi Population of Surface Soils under Various Land Use Types i...BRNSS Publication Hub
The study was carried out at the Teaching and Research Farm of the School of Agriculture and Agricultural
Technology, Minna, in the month of July 2014. The aim of the study was to estimate the bacteria and
fungi population of three selected vegetation types at three soil depths and correlate microbial counts
with the physicochemical properties of soils. The experiment was a 3 by 3 factorial experiment, arranged
in a completely randomized design. The treatments were vegetation types (fallow, gmelina, and teak)
and three soil depths (0–5 cm, 5–10 cm, and 10–15 cm). Data obtained were subjected to ANOVA while
means were separated using the Student–Newman–Keuls test Linear relationship. The standard pour
plate method was used to estimate bacteria and fungi colony-forming units (CFU) in 1 g soil. Physical
and chemical analyses were carried out by standard laboratory methods. The bacterial and fungal counts
were highest in the gmelina vegetation and least under teak. The 0–5 cm soil depth had the highest
microbial counts. Bacterial population correlated positively and significantly with the fungal population
and organic content while microbial population correlated negatively with soil pH. Gmelina vegetation
produced the highest microbial population followed by fallow and teak in that sequence. Fallow
recorded the narrowest C/N and C/P ratios, respectively, implying N mineralization and P solubilization
while the tree vegetations recorded wider ratios signifying N and P immobilization. It can, therefore, be
inferred from the results obtained that tree vegetations can be under cultivation with much sacrifice in
inorganic N and P fertilizers. Fallow land, on the other hand, will require lower inorganic N and P inputs
and, therefore, has prospects in reduction of environmental pollution and subsequent increase in crop
production.
Geochemical Survey, Health and Environmental Implication of Trace Elements in...Premier Publishers
This study involves the geochemical assessment of trace elements of surface soil samples from Owo area in Ondo State, Nigeria. In environmental studies, chemical elements are often distinguished as lithogenic and anthropogenic based on their sources. The knowledge about their distribution in soils is thus crucial for the assessment of the environmental hazards due to chemical pollution of urban soils. In this area, fourteen (14) soil samples were collected and analyzed for the following trace elements – Zinc(Zn), Copper(Cu), Lead(Pb), Arsenic(As), Cadmium(Cd), Titanium(Ti), Strontium(Sr), Zircon(Zr), Molybdenum(Mo), Silver(Ag), Rubidium (Rb), and Tin(Sn) using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS). The background values as determined were as follows: Zn(8.30-8.70ppm), Cu(1.95-2.19ppm), Pb(0.83-0.87ppm) As(0.052-0.054ppm), Cd(0.06-0.07ppm), Ti(0.12-0.14ppm), Sr(0.04-0.05ppm), Zr(0.04-0.05ppm), Mo(0.13-0.14ppm), Ag(0.12 0.13ppm), Rb(0.013-0.014ppm) and Sn(0.07-0.08ppm).The threshold values in (ppm) were: 9.12, 2.69, 0.93, 0.06, 0.07, 0.20, 0.05, 0.06, 0.20, 0.26, 0.02, and 0.11. The increase above the background concentrations is probably anthropogenic. The Anthropogenic Factor (AF) and Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) were determined for Zn, Pb, Cu and As in order to quantify the level of contamination in the soils. The result revealed an average AF of 1.1 and Igeo of -0.44, 1.00, -1.05 and -0.37. This result indicates uncontaminated to slightly contaminated soil condition. The pH values of the soils, ranging from (5.5-7.7) indicate a slightly acidic to slightly alkaline soils owing to the chemical reactions of the anthropogenic additives. Anthropogenic inputs from the few industries in the area were quite minimal, except for municipal and vehicular contributions. Therefore, monitoring programs should be introduced to check the level of environmental degradation that may result from future anthropogenic perturbations.
Assessment of remediation Potentials of maize (Zea mays) on sites co-contamin...IJAEMSJORNAL
Phytoremediation is a promising technology for the remediation of sites co-contaminated with inorganic and organic pollutants. A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the remediation potential of Z.mays in soil co- contaminated with Pb and antracene. Pristine sandy loam soils were polluted with Pb chloride salt and antracene at three different levels (50mg/kg of Pb, 100mg/kg of Pb, and 100mg/kg of Pb+100mg/kg of antracene) and laid out in completely randomized design with 3 replicates. Shoot dry matter weight was significantly reduced (p≤0.05) when compared with control treatments by 40% when exposed to100mg kg-1 of Pb. There was a 48% inhibition of shoot dry matter of Z.mays relative to control treatments when 100 mg Pb kg-1 was mixed with 100 mgkg-1 antracene. Root and shoot metal concentration in Zea mays increased with increasing concentration of Pb. The average Translocation Factor (TF < 1 (0.69) obtained suggests that Zea mays predominantly retains Pb in the root portion of the plant. There was a 5% increase in shoot Pb concentration when soil was contaminated with Pb and antracene. The extractable antracene decreased significantly (p≤0.05) in soil planted with Z.mays as well as in pots without maize plant. This accounted for 65 and 72% of antracene dissipation in planted soil and 40-46% dissipation in unplanted soil. This result suggested that Zeamays is a promising candidate for uptake Pb and dissipation of antracene in co-contaminated soils.
DOI: 10.21276/ijlssr.2016.2.3.14
ABSTRACT- The physico-chemical properties of four lands use types in Akokwa of Ideato North, Imo State, Nigeria
were determined. The land use patterns were fallow land (FL), cassava continuously cultivated land (CL), Oil palm
plantation (OPL) and Yam plot (YL). Composite samples were collected from various depths (0 -15 cm, 15 – 30 cm,
30 – 45 cm) across these land use patterns and analyzed in the laboratory. Data generated were subjected to analysis of
variance. Results obtained showed significant difference (P≤0.05) in soil bulk density, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen
(TN), available phosphorus (Av. P) and ECEC across the four land use types. The bulk density value was highest at
30 – 45 cm depth by CL (1.93 g/cm3), followed by YL (1.89 g/cm3), OPL (1.70 g/cm3) and FL (1.68 g/cm3). The TN
content of the soil was highest in the FL at 0 – 15 cm depth (0.25%) while the lowest was found in the CL plot (0.03%).
The soil Av. P content was highest in the FL at 0 – 15 cm depth (9.63 mg/kg) while the lowest value was obtained in CL
plot (1.16 mg/kg). The values of OC at the depths of 0 – 15 cm, 15 – 30 cm and 30 – 45 cm in the FL (1.03%, 0.49%.
0.45%) were found to be significantly different (P≤0.05) from the CL (0.39%, 0.15%, 0.13%) land use type. Results
obtained showed that different land use types have varying effects on soil physical and chemical properties. The fallow
land had on the surface (0 – 15 cm) the highest content of soil chemical properties and lowest bulk density. Therefore,
farmers may periodically fallow their lands to build up organic matter, stabilize soil aggregates, improves nutrient cycles
for sustainable productivity.
Key-words- Land use, Soil chemical properties, Bulk density, Fallow land, Cassava land, Yam land, Oil palm land
Evaluation of Heavy Metals in Soil and Plants along Mubi-Gombi Highway, Adama...Premier Publishers
The concentrations of some selected heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Fe, Mg and Co) along Mubi- Gombi highway were analysed. Samples of roadside soil and plants were randomly collected from six (6) towns; these include Mubi, Mararaba, Makera, Kala’a, Hong and Gombi. Subsequently the concentrations of the following heavy metals Cd, Pb, Fe, Mg and Co in the samples were analyzed using Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) . Three samples were taken at each sampling point at a distance of 5 m, 10 m and 15 m from the edge inward. The result revealed that Cd, Pb, Fe, Mg and Co were present in the soil and plant samples. The mean concentration ranged from Cd(0.02±0.01 – 1.50 ±0.11 mg/ kg) Pb(0.02±0.01 – 2.70±0.20 mg/ kg), Co(0.13±0.02 – 0.84±0.06mg/ kg), Fe( 243.80±16.4 – 311.74±22.8mg/ kg) and Mg(1.75±0.03 – 2.35±0.06mg/ kg) in the soil samples. While the mean concentration in plants leaves samples ranged from Cd (0.01±0.00 – 0.04±0.02mg/ kg), Pd( 0.17±0.04 – 0.82±0.10mg/ kg), Co(0.20±0.03 – 0.88±0.88mg/ kg), Fe( 41.56±3.21 - 85.12±5.48mg/ kg) and Mg(2.11±0.18 - 2.32±0.07mg/ kg) . The concentration of Pb,Fe and Co exceeded the permissible limit of WHO. While the concentration of Cd and Mg were found to be within WHO limit. The high levels of Pb, Fe and Co indicate the potential health risk for human. The high level of these metals might be due to anthropogenic activities. However, the values of these metals decreased with increasing distance from the road inward. Also, significant difference in heavy metal concentrations among the sampling locations at p<0.05 level both in soil and plant were observed. Therefore, economic plants should not be planted along the highway to avoid heavy metal contamination.
Variability in the physicochemical properties of soils of different land uses form from the same lithology was studied. Soil samples were collected from surface (0 – 20 cm) and subsurface (20 – 40 cm) depths from three land use namely fallow land, continuous cultivated land and mechanic village land. The soils were air dried, sieved with 2 mm sieve and subjected to routine laboratory analysis. Results obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significant treatment means were separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 0.05 probability level. Relationship between selected soil properties were determined using correlation analysis. Results showed that the textures of the studied soils were not affected by land use practices. Bulk density increased with increase in depth with fallow land recoding the lowest values of 0.86 g/cm3 (0.-20 cm depth) and 1.06 g/cm3 (20 – 40 cm depth). Land use types significantly (P = 0.05) affected soil chemical properties such as soil pH, soil organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable cations with the highest values recorded in fallow land, followed by palm plantation and the least was continuous cultivated land. There were slight variations among soil properties in the three land use types studied. Significant positive and negative correlations existed and some soil properties. Good soil management practices such as organic fertilization, zero tillage and mulching is recommended especially in continuous cultivated lands.
Variability in the physicochemical properties of soils of different land uses form from the same lithology was studied. Soil samples were collected from surface (0 – 20 cm) and subsurface (20 – 40 cm) depths from three land use namely fallow land, continuous cultivated land and mechanic village land. The soils were air dried, sieved with 2 mm sieve and subjected to routine laboratory analysis. Results obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significant treatment means were separated using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 0.05 probability level. Relationship between selected soil properties were determined using correlation analysis. Results showed that the textures of the studied soils were not affected by land use practices. Bulk density increased with increase in depth with fallow land recoding the lowest values of 0.86 g/cm3 (0.-20 cm depth) and 1.06 g/cm3 (20 – 40 cm depth). Land use types significantly (P = 0.05) affected soil chemical properties such as soil pH, soil organic carbon, total N, available P and exchangeable cations with the highest values recorded in fallow land, followed by palm plantation and the least was continuous cultivated land. There were slight variations among soil properties in the three land use types studied. Significant positive and negative correlations existed and some soil properties. Good soil management practices such as organic fertilization, zero tillage and mulching is recommended especially in continuous cultivated lands.
IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry (IOSR-JAC) is an open access international journal that provides rapid publication (within a month) of articles in all areas of applied chemistry and its applications. The journal welcomes publications of high quality papers on theoretical developments and practical applications in Chemical Science. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews, and high quality technical notes are invited for publications.
Assessment of Commonly Used Pesticides in the Ground Water of the Shallow Aqu...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
Abstract— One of the most important pollutants that may reach the groundwater through agricultural return flow combined with abuse and ignorance is pesticides. This study focuses on the examination of the concentration of three pesticides: Abamectin, Imidacloprid, and ß-Cyfluthrin, all of which have been used in large quantities in the Lower Jordan Valley (LJV) for the last three decades. Twenty five groundwater samples were collected from water boreholes where water is abstracted from two phreatic aquifer systems which are the Plio-Plistocene aquifer system in Jericho and Lower Al Jeftlik areas and the Eocene carbonate aquifer system in the Middle of Al Jeftlik. The depth of the boreholes in both aquifer system ranges between 80 and 120 m. Water samples were analyzed for Abamectin, Imidacloprid, and ß-Cyfluthrin using the HPLC-UV method. These samples represent two main agricultural locations (Jericho, and the Al Jeftlik). Of the 25 wells sampled, Abamectin was detected in 11 wells in concentrations ranging between 1.24 ppb and 81.71ppb. Imidacloprid was detected in 24 wells in concentrations ranging between 1.60ppb and 325.0ppb. Finally, ß-Cyfluthrin was detected in 7 wells in concentrations ranging between 1.10 and 24.46ppb.
Aquifer lithology, groundwater flow directions, type of agricultural activity are major factors in controlling pesticide concentrations in groundwater. The highest values were measured where the aquifer consists of gravel and sand sediments, combined with intensive agricultural activities, followed by sand-silt aquifer. The lowest concentrations were found in boreholes where carbonate aquifer is the main source of water which indicates that other source of water flow into the system. The results of this study demonstrate that these pesticides are used heavily and in an improper way in the lower Jordan Valley, increasing the risk of adverse environmental and public health effects. Much attention should be given to addressing the potential problem of environmental and groundwater contamination by these pesticides.
Effects of Irrigation Practices on Some Soil Chemical Properties on OMI Irrig...IJERA Editor
Irrigation practices have been observed to impact scheme soil properties and other parameters negatively. These could be as a result of irrigation water quality, method of application and nature of scheme soil. This study was therefore conducted to study the effects of irrigation practices on the soils of Omi irrigation scheme Kogi state, Nigeria after 13years of operation. Soil samples were taken at depths 0 – 20 cm (A1), 20 – 80 cm (A2) and 80 – 120 cm (A3) from two operating lands (OL); OL 5 and OL 18 of the study area. The samples were analysed for chemical parameters (pH, CEC, ESP, Mg2+, Ca2+, OM, and OC). The soil pH which was in the neutral range (pH=6.65 to 7.00) at inception of scheme, has become slightly acidic (pH=6.53 to 6.60). Cation exchange capacity (CEC) levels have also increased from 10cmol+kg-1 to 35cmol+kg-1. While Organic matter (OM) and Organic carbon (OC) also have marked increase in their levels (baseline as 0.93 to 1.08; for year 2013 as 9.52 to 9.79). Generally, the analysis indicated a need for proper monitoring of the scheme soil to prevent further deterioration.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Effects of drip irrigation frequency and depth on soil hydro-physical propert...inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
ABSTRACT- Composite soil samples were collected from the rhizospheres of Gmelina arborea, Elaeis guineensis and Hevea brasiliensis plantations as well as the Rain Forest of over 20 years of age in Akampa L.G.A. at depths of 0-15 cm (surface soil) and 15-30 cm (sub surface soil), to examine the effects of land use and management practices on some physical, chemical and microbial properties of the soils. The soils were mainly sandy loam, strongly acid in reaction and generally low in available P, exchangeable Ca2+, K+ and Na+, but moderate in Mg2+ except for the surface soil in Elaeis guineensis plantation which was however, high in organic C (4.29 %), total N (0.37 %) and Mg (3.9 cmol kg-1). The soils regardless of the land use patterns were high in exchangeable acidity with Elaeis guineensis having the least values. Diverse species of microorganisms were isolated across the different plantations and rain forest, however, Elaeis guineensis recorded the highest microbial count. Land use altered the microbial population and also had an effect on the species composition of soil microbial communities. Bacillus spp, Pseudomonas spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium spp and Mucor spp as well as Aspergillus niger were however, common across the study sites while other organisms were location specific suggesting vegetation and land use meddling. The effects of land use pattern were noted in the chemical and microbial alteration observed mostly in the top of rhizosphere soils. It is pertinent that good management practices such as liming, mulching as well as cover cropping be carried out to increase and maintain the fertility of the soils.
Key-words- Land use, Physicochemical and Microbial properties, Rain Forest, Rhizosphere
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Similar to Impact of long term application of agrochemicals on the agro-ecology of the lower anambra river basin southeast nigeria. (20)
Search and Society: Reimagining Information Access for Radical FuturesBhaskar Mitra
The field of Information retrieval (IR) is currently undergoing a transformative shift, at least partly due to the emerging applications of generative AI to information access. In this talk, we will deliberate on the sociotechnical implications of generative AI for information access. We will argue that there is both a critical necessity and an exciting opportunity for the IR community to re-center our research agendas on societal needs while dismantling the artificial separation between the work on fairness, accountability, transparency, and ethics in IR and the rest of IR research. Instead of adopting a reactionary strategy of trying to mitigate potential social harms from emerging technologies, the community should aim to proactively set the research agenda for the kinds of systems we should build inspired by diverse explicitly stated sociotechnical imaginaries. The sociotechnical imaginaries that underpin the design and development of information access technologies needs to be explicitly articulated, and we need to develop theories of change in context of these diverse perspectives. Our guiding future imaginaries must be informed by other academic fields, such as democratic theory and critical theory, and should be co-developed with social science scholars, legal scholars, civil rights and social justice activists, and artists, among others.
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
Slack (or Teams) Automation for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Soluti...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on the notifications, alerts, and approval requests using Slack for Bonterra Impact Management. The solutions covered in this webinar can also be deployed for Microsoft Teams.
Interested in deploying notification automations for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Connector Corner: Automate dynamic content and events by pushing a buttonDianaGray10
Here is something new! In our next Connector Corner webinar, we will demonstrate how you can use a single workflow to:
Create a campaign using Mailchimp with merge tags/fields
Send an interactive Slack channel message (using buttons)
Have the message received by managers and peers along with a test email for review
But there’s more:
In a second workflow supporting the same use case, you’ll see:
Your campaign sent to target colleagues for approval
If the “Approve” button is clicked, a Jira/Zendesk ticket is created for the marketing design team
But—if the “Reject” button is pushed, colleagues will be alerted via Slack message
Join us to learn more about this new, human-in-the-loop capability, brought to you by Integration Service connectors.
And...
Speakers:
Akshay Agnihotri, Product Manager
Charlie Greenberg, Host
Let's dive deeper into the world of ODC! Ricardo Alves (OutSystems) will join us to tell all about the new Data Fabric. After that, Sezen de Bruijn (OutSystems) will get into the details on how to best design a sturdy architecture within ODC.
Kubernetes & AI - Beauty and the Beast !?! @KCD Istanbul 2024Tobias Schneck
As AI technology is pushing into IT I was wondering myself, as an “infrastructure container kubernetes guy”, how get this fancy AI technology get managed from an infrastructure operational view? Is it possible to apply our lovely cloud native principals as well? What benefit’s both technologies could bring to each other?
Let me take this questions and provide you a short journey through existing deployment models and use cases for AI software. On practical examples, we discuss what cloud/on-premise strategy we may need for applying it to our own infrastructure to get it to work from an enterprise perspective. I want to give an overview about infrastructure requirements and technologies, what could be beneficial or limiting your AI use cases in an enterprise environment. An interactive Demo will give you some insides, what approaches I got already working for real.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
AI for Every Business: Unlocking Your Product's Universal Potential by VP of ...
Impact of long term application of agrochemicals on the agro-ecology of the lower anambra river basin southeast nigeria.
1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.5, 2013
32
Impact of Long-term Application of Agrochemicals on the
Agro-Ecology of the Lower Anambra River Basin Southeast
Nigeria.
Ogbodo E.N1
and N.C. Onwa2
1 Department of Soil and Environmental Management,
Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources Management, Ebonyi State University, P.M.B. 053 Abakaliki,
Nigeria
Tel.: +234 8037465495; e-mail:emmanwaogbodo@yahoo.com
2 Department of Applied Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Ebonyi State University Abakaliki
P.M.B. 053, Abakaliki, Nigeria
Tel.: +234 8035729673, email: nduonwacollins@yahoo.com
Abstract
Information regarding the effect of application of Agro-chemicals on the soil environment of the lower Anambra
River Basin is entirely lacking. A study was therefore conducted in the lower Anambra River Basin to assess the
impact of long term use of Agrochemicals on the farm environment. The parameters studied were heavy metal
levels [ercury (Hg), Copper (Cu), Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), Fe (Iron) Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn),
Manganese (Mn), and Nickel (Ni)] in the soil and run-off water, and soil and water microbial load. Soil and
water samples were collected from the different locations of the river basin and analyzed for their content of
these heavy metals. Also the microbial loads of the soil and runoff water samples were determined using the
standard plate count techniques. The Results of the analysis indicated that the heavy metals in the soils and
runoff water were all above the permissive levels for agricultural and domestic purposes respectively, whereas
the microbiological analysis indicated a reduction in the microbial load of the soil samples compared to
standards.
Key Words: Agrochemicals application; Heavy Metals; microbial load; Soil; Runoff Water; River Basin.
Corresponding Author: Tel.: +234 8037465495; e-mail:emmanwaogbodo@yahoo.com
1. Introduction
Many concerned with increasing agricultural productivity and food security are focused on fertilizer and other
Agrochemicals as a remedy for declining soil quality and stagnant yields. There is currently world-wide concern
regarding the impact of these modern farming practices on soil and water quality. Others fear that increased use
will have undesirable environmental impacts (soil acidification, water pollution) that could outweigh the benefits
(Pretty, 1995). Agricultural runoff often contains developed levels of heavy metals from fertilizers and other
agricultural chemicals applied to the fields. These chemicals are carried with rainfall runoff into rivers and
streams, reservoirs, polluting water bodies and modifying aquatic habitats. Eutrophic conditions and anoxic
conditions result and accumulation of heavy metals in sediments, plants and animal tissue are known to occur.
There could also be potential damage to soil microorganisms from high concentrations of Agrochemicals.
Effects of the Agrochemicals can be either direct (immediate or short-term impacts) due to harm to the
organisms that come in contact with the chemical, or indirect due to changes caused by the chemical to the
environment, or food source of organisms. In some cases there may be a short term but no long term effect
(Angus et al 1999).The direct effects of Agrochemicals can be short; obvious in the first season after application
of the fertilizer or long term; if repeated additions have taken place. Indirect effects are usually long-term; take
more than one season to develop, and are due to changes in pH or changes in productivity, residue inputs and soil
organic matter levels (Bune-mann and McNeill 2004). These effects become important in agriculture when
nutrient availability to plants and hence crop productivity are changed due to the effect.
The lower Anambra River Basin where this study took place covers very vast areas of wet- land within the
larger Anambra river basin. Large scale rice production in the area was introduced in the 1980’s by the Nigerian
government during the Green Revolution era. The successful agricultural development was dependent on the
large-scale use of Agrochemicals. However, in recent times productivity levels have remained stagnant despite
the introduction of new crop varieties and germplasms and increase in quantity of agrochemicals and fertilizer
application. This situation has been attributed largely to declining soil fertility (Ogbodo et al, 2012)
2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.5, 2013
33
Therefore, there is the need to verify the conditions of the environment since it has been subjected to long
term application of Agrochemicals. This is important upon the reality that the use of Agrochemicals for crop
production is now either limited or prohibited in most advanced countries. It appears therefore that
Agrochemicals par se have detrimental effect on soil and water quality. But information regarding the impact of
the application of agrochemicals and fertilizers on the soils of the lower Anambra river basin over these years is
entirely lacking, hence this study.
2.Materials and methods
Location:
The study location is shown in figure 1. The study covered the entire area of land occupied by the lower
Anambra River Basin Development Authority, located within latitudes 5o
431
N and 6o
201
N, and Longitude 6o
361
E and 7o
051
E of the derived savanna ecological zone of Nigeria.The area is spread across the four zones of
Omor, Umumbo, Umerum and Anaku farming communities.
Figure 1: Location Map showing (a) Map of Nigeria indicating study area and
(b) Enlarged Anambra River Basin indicating study area.
Field study
The field study started in June; the laboratory studies in July, while data analysis took place in October 2012.
The work involved reconnaissance survey of the entire area, and the determination of sampling areas.
Soil-samples for heavy metal determination were randomly collected from 20 sites at the depth of 0-40 cm in
each zone with soil auger, bulked together, and a sub-sample taken for analysis. These samples were analyzed
separately for heavy metal count. For microbial determination, Soil samples of the different zones were
collected using sterile trowels and transferred to sterile sampling bottles and labelled. About 200 grams of soil
sample was collected for each sampling zone. It was then transported in an ice pack to the laboratory for analysis.
Runoff water samples were collected with the aid of sterile 250ml beakers and transferred into new and clean 1
litre plastic containers with cover previously rinsed with the runoff water of the particular zone. About 400ml of
the runoff water sample was collected for each sampling zone and taken to the laboratory and analyzed
immediately.
3. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.5, 2013
34
Sample analysis.
The soil and water samples were analysed for heavy metal [Mercury (Hg), Copper (Cu), Arsenic (As), Lead
(Pb), Chromium (Cr), Fe (Iron) Cadmium (Cd), Zinc (Zn), Manganese (Mn), and Nickel (Ni)] content, and
bacteria and fungi load respectively. For the microbiological determination, standard plate count was carried out
on the soil and runoff water sample according to the method as described by Harold (1998). Plate count agar was
used for total bacterial count while potato dextrose agar was used for fungi count. Duplicate plating was done for
all the dilutions. Plate count agar plates were incubated at 35o
C for 48 hours while potato dextrose agar plates
were incubated at 25o
C for 96 hours. For the heavy metals, Total Iron(Fe), copper(Cu), lead(pb), zinc(Zn)
cadmium(cd) Mercury (Hg), Arsenic(As), Chromium (Cr), Manganese (Mn), and Nickel (Ni)) content, were
measured by Sp 1900 pye Unican Recording flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer at their respective
wavelengths after wet digestion with a mixture of HCL and HN0
3
.
Data analysis
The results were statistically analyzed, using coefficient of variation, and compared respectively with
the World Health Organization standards.
3. Results and discussion
The effects of longterm application of Arochemicals on the soil and run-off water are presented in tables 1 and 2.
Very high levels of the measured metals were detected in both the soil and water samples. The contents of these
elements in the area is very alarming when compared to the world health organisation standard permissible
levels, and calls for concern by the appropriate agencies, to embark on control and remediation activities.
The most frequently and currently used Agrochemicals in the area are (herbicides Atrazine, Simazine,
Alachlor, Metolachlor and Trifluralin, insecticides Diazinon, Parathion methyl, and organochlorine pesticides
lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, and Fertilizers Urea, Amonium Sulphate and N P K compound fertilizers. Variability
in the levels of heavy metal elements among the various locations of the river basin was observed. The
variability is ascribed primarily to differences in the nature of the soils and the proportion of exposure of the
various locations to these agro-chemicals. Some other researchers have pointed out that the transport, persistence
or degradation of these chemicals in soil is known to be dependent on their chemical properties as well as
physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil (Hildebrandt et al., 2009; Jiang et al., 2009). All these
factors affect sorption/ desorption, volatilisation, degradation, uptake by plants, run-off, and leaching of these
chemicals. Shegunova et al., 2007; Toan et al., 2007; Ferencz and Balog 2010 have also shown that the
Persistence of such chemicals in soil can vary from few hours to many years particularly in case of
Organochlorines. These would quite adversely affect the fertility of the soils and their use for agricultural
purposes. All the detected chemicals are deleterious to plants and animal life, and one should not lose sight of the
fact that apart from the agricultural use to which the soil is put that the run-off water is also used for both
domestic and aquaculture purposes by the inhabitants.
It was observed that Pesticides and herbicides entered the soil through spray drift during foliage treatment;
wash-off from treated foliage, or from treated seeds in soil. Some pesticides such as soil fumigants and
nematocides are applied directly into soil to control pests and plant diseases presented in soil. The fertilizers are
applied directly to the soil either by side placement, broadcasting or incorporation during tillage.
The Agrochemicals get into water via drift during spraying, by runoff from treated area, leaching through
the soil. Since many of these chemicals are not easily degradable, they persist in soil, leach to groundwater and
surface water and contaminate wide environment. The primary negative impact of contituous input fertilizer
applications (used without complementary liming and/or organic amendments) in the area is loss of productivity
due to acidification (Ogbodo et al 2012). Acidification or lowering of soil pH has negative impacts on most crop
growth and occurs as a direct result of application of specific types of fertilizers. Sanchez, 1976 had noted that
the most serious negative impact associated with acidification is aluminium (Al) toxicity. This phenomenon
causes reduced root growth and function hence hampering nutrient uptake and crop productivity. The other side
effects of elevated levels of Aluminium in soil solution is the capacity to form complexes with P leading to the
deficiency of the nutrient in soil, and the possibility of toxicity to micro-organisms.
Results of the aerobic bacterial count of the soil samples showed that sampling zone 3 had the least count of
4.7 x 106
cfu/g followed by sampling zone 4 with 5.0 x 106
cfu/g and sampling zone 1 with 1.0 x 107
cfu/g.
Sampling zone 2 had the highest value of 3.0 x 107
cfu/g (Table 3).
The aerobic bacteria count of the runoff water samples showed that sampling zone 1 had the least count
of 3.0 x 105
cfg/ml followed by sampling zone 3 with 2.8 x 105
cfg/ml and sampling zone 4 with 4.8 x 106
cfg/ml.
sampling zone 2 had the highest bacteria count of 6.3 x 106
cfg/ml (Table 5).
4. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.5, 2013
35
Igba et al (2005) found out that the range of bacterial count of untreated soil with heavy metals ranges
between 7.2 x 107
cfg/g to 1.1 x 108
cfg/g of soil, while the bacterial count of treated soil with heavy metals
were below 7.2 x 107
cfg/g. It showed that the presence of the agrochemicals in the soil and runoff water samples
affected the bacterial load of the soil in the lower Anambra River Basin. The lowest bacterial count of 4.7 x 106
cfg/ml by sampling zone 3 may not be unconnected to the highest presence (concentration) of Nickel and
cadmium in the soil of sampling zone 3 compared to the soil of other sampled zones.
Al Gaidi (2010) showed that cadmium has much more significant effect in decreasing bacterial
population than lead. He also found out that higher concentration of these metals cause decreases in total
bacterial populations.
Hossain et al (2005) established that the relative toxicity of different metals to microbial
groups/populations decreased in the order cd > cu> Zn>Pb.
Igba et al (2005) also found out that aerobic heterotrophic populations were more sensitive to metal groups
like Nichel (Ni) and cadmium (cd) followed by Cu, Hg, Mn, Cr and Zinc. The concentrations and levels of these
agrochemicals in the soil and runoff water of the lower Anambra River Basin are high enough to affect the
microbial number (table 1 and table 2) and have caused a decrease in the microbial number of the soil and
runoff water of the lower Anambra River Basin (Table 3-6). Besides these, Gigliotti and Allievi 2001 had
found out that other bacterial species, such as nitrification bacteria, are very sensitive to pesticides influence.
Inhibition of nitrification has also been shown to be toxic to nitrification and denitrification bacterial processes
(Kinney et al., 2005; Lang and Cai 2009).
The fungi count of the soil samples indicated that sampling zone 4 had the least fungi count of 1.3 x 105
cfg/gl followed by sampling zone 3 with 4.1 x 105
cfg/ml and sampling zone 2 with 9.0 x 105
cfg/ml. Sampling
zone 1 had the highest fungi count of 9.0 x 105
cfg/ml.
The fungi count of runoff water samples revealed that sampling zone 2 had the least fungi count of 2.1 x 105
cfg/ml followed by sampling zone 3 with 3.0 x 105
cfg/ml and sampling zone 1 with 4.0 x 105
cfg/ml. Sampling
zone 4 had the highest fungi count of 4.1 x 105
cfg/ml. Fungicides had earlier been found to be toxic to soil
fungi and actinomycetes and caused changes in microbial community structure (Liebich et al., 2003; Pal et al.,
2005). Some pesticides (Benomyl, Dimethoate) can also negatively affect symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi, which
facilitate plant nutrient uptake (Menendez et al., 199910
; Chiocchio et al., 2000). These are possible conditions
that could have led to lower levels of fungal count obtainable in the soils of the lower Anambra river Basin
compared to normal situation.
Overall, these soil micro-organisms are essential for maintenance of soil structure, transformation and
mineralization of organic matter, making nutrients available for plants. Soil microorganisms are also known to
have the capability to metabolise and degrade a lot of pollutants and pesticides and therefore are environmentally
friendly. This study has therefore shown that soil microbial population are characterized by flexibility and
adaptability to changed environmental condition; the application of agrochemicals (especially long-term) can
cause significant variations in their population.
Countermeasures
The practice of application of organic manure and returning of crop residues to the soil could be a sure low cost
measure to mop-up the excess heavy metals in the soils. The use of Soil organic manure remains the most
important factor influencing sorption and leaching of chemicals in soil. Addition of organic matter to the soils
can enhance sorption and reduce risk to soil and water pollution. It has been demonstrated that amount and
composition of organic matter had large impact on agrochemicals sorption. For example soil rich on humus
content are more chemically reactive with pesticides than nonhumified soil (Farenhorst 2006).
Conclusion
The different Agrochemicals (pesticides, Fertilizers, fungicides etc) used in Agriculture are either degraded by
the soil organisms or are liable to leave toxic residues in soil and water which are hazardous to cause profound
reduction in the normal microbial activity in the soil. The concentrations and levels of these agrochemicals
residues in the soil and runoff water of the lower Anambra River Basin were high enough to alter the chemical
composition of the soils and adversely affect their use for agricultural purposes. The elevated levels of heavy
metals detected in the soils caused a decrease in the microbial number of the soil and runoff water of the lower
Anambra River Basin. This definitely would lower the fertility status of the soil. It was concluded that adoption
of increased use of organic manure to raise the level of soil organic matter could be a possible means of
countering the menace of elevated levels of heavy metals in the soil and runoff water at the lower Anambra river
Basin.
5. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.5, 2013
36
References
Igbal Ahmed, S. Hayat, A. Ahmed, A. Inam, Samiullah (2005). Effect of heavy metals on survivial of certain
groups of indigenous soil microbial populations. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Mgt. 9 (1) 115-121.
Al Gaidi Abdausalam (2010). Effect of heavy metals on soil Microbial processes and populations. Egypt Aced J.
Biolg. Sci. 2(2) 9-14
Alloway, B. J. (1995). Heavy metals in soils 2
nd
edn. Chapman and Hall.Glasgow.Pp.34.
Angus, J. J., V. V. R. Gupta, A. J. Good and G. D. Pitson (1999). Wheat Yield and Protein response to
anhydrous ammonia (Coldflo) and urea, and their effects on soil. Final Report of project CSP 169 for the
grains research and Development Corporation. CSIRO 17 pp
Bunneman, E. K. and Mc Niel (2004). Impact of Ferti;izers on Soil Biota. In Soil Biology in Agriculture.
Proceedings of a Workshop on current research into Soil Biology in agriculture . Eds. R. Lines-Kelly, N.
S. W. Tamsworth. Department of primary industries. Pp 63-71
Coat, S., Bocquene G., Godard, E. (2006): Contamination of some aquatic species with the organochlorine
pesticide chlordecone in Martinique. Aquat. Living Resour. 19(2), pp 181-187.
Bocquené, G., Franco, A. (2005): Pesticide contamination of the coastline of Martinique. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 51(5-7), pp 612-619.
Chiocchio, V., Venedikian, N., Martinez, A.E., Menendez, A., Ocampo. J.A., Godeas, A. (2000): Effect of the
fungicide benomyl on spore germination and hyphal length of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus
mosseae. International Microbiology 3, pp 173–175.
Farenhorst, A. (2006): Importance of Soil Organic Matter Fractions in Soil-Landscape and Regional Assessments
of Pesticide Sorption and Leaching in Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70(3), pp 1005-1012.
Ferencz, L., Balog, A. (2010): A pesticide survey in soil, water and foodstuffs from entral Romania. Carpathian
Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, April 2010, 5(1), pp 111-118.
Gigliotti, C., Allievi, L. (2001): Differential effects of the herbicides Bensulphuron and Cinosulphuron on soil
microorganisms. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B: Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and
Agricultural Wastes 36(6), pp 775 - 782.
Harold J. B. (1989). Microbiological Applications. A laboratory manual in General Microbiology 5th
ed. WCB
Publishers, USA pp 87-92, 199
Kinney, C.A., Mandernack, K.W., Mosier, A.R. (2005): Laboratory investigations into the effects of the
pesticides mancozeb, chlorothalonil, and prosulfuron on nitrous oxide and nitric oxide production in
fertilized soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37(5), pp 837-850.
Lang, M., Cai, Z. (2009): Effects of chlorothalonil and carbendazim on nitrification and denitrification in soils.
Journal of Environmental Sciences 21(4), pp 458-467.
Liebich, J., Schäffer, A., Burauel, P. (2003): Structural and functional approach to studying pesticide side-effects
on specific soil functions. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22(4), pp 784-790.
Menendez, A., Martínez, A., Chiocchio, V., Venedikian, N., Ocampo, J.A., Godeas, A. (1999 ): Influence of the
insecticide dimethoate on arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization and growth in soybean plants. International
Microbiology 2, pp 43-45.
Ogbodo E. N., E. O. Anedo and E. O. Ogah (2012). Review of the Fertility Status of the Wetlands of the Lower
AnambraRiver Basin for Sustainable Crop Production. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare Vol. 2,
No.10, 2012: 32- 39
Pal, R., Chakrabarti, K., Chakraborty, A., Chowdhury, A. (2005): Pencycuron application to soils: Degradation
and effect on microbiological parameters. Chemosphere 60(11), pp 1513-1522.
Pretty, J. 1995. Regenerating Agriculture. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
Sanchez, Pedro A. 1976. Properties and Management of Soils in the Tropics. New York: Wiley and Son
Shegunova, P., Klánová, J., Holoubek, I. (2007): Residues of organochlorinated pesticides in soils from the
Czech Republic. Environmental Pollution 146(1), pp 257-261.
Toan, V., Thao, V., Walder, J., Schmutz, H.-R., Ha, C. (2007): Contamination by Selected Organochlorine
Pesticides (OCPs) in Surface Soils in Hanoi, Vietnam. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and
Toxicology 78(3), pp 195-200.
WHO (World Health Organization (2003). Guidelines for drinking water quality. (3
rd
edn) WHO Gener; Rome
14.
6. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol. 3, No.5, 2013
37
Table 1: Levels of Heavy Metals in Soil
Samplin
g zone
Hg
(mg/kg
)
Cu
(mg/kg
)
Pb
(mg/kg
)
As
(mg/kg
)
Cr
(mg/kg
)
Fe
(mg/kg
)
Cd
(mg/kg
)
Zn
(mg/kg
)
Mn
(mg/kg
)
Ni
(mg/kg
)
1 523.75 1125 1250 625 450 125 87.5 400 62.5 812.5
2 280 2750 1500 1000 75 125 62.5 525 237.5 925
3 88.75 1750 2500 125 1512.5 2125 50 937.5 262.5 2562.5
4 111.25 125 2750 1625 1275 125 37.5 900 112.5 1275
CV % 69 66 31 64 70 98 93 62 97 49
Standard 0.01 2.00 0.01 366 0.01 0.05 100 85 0.003 75
Table 2: Concentration of Heavy Metals in run-off water.
Sampling
zone
Hg
(ml/L)
Cu
(ml/L)
Pb
(ml/L)
As
(ml/L)
Cr
(ml/L)
Fe
(ml/L)
Cd
(ml/L)
Zn
(ml/L)
Mn
(mg/kg)
Ni
(mg/kg)
1 0.02 3.40 6.40 0.70 0.47 1.40 0.10 0.22 0.11 1.12
2 0.20 0.7 6.1 0.10 0.80 1.20 0.12 0.12 0.59 0.19
3 0.04 0.1 6.6 0.70 0.67 1.10 0.17 0.44 0.13 0.62
4 0.08 3.1 7.5 0.20 0.77 0.97 0.14 0.32 0.20 1.16
CV % 98 79 73 65 19 13 19 35 74 29
Standard 0.001 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.05 90 0.01 5.00 0.05 0.05
Table 3: Aerobic bacteria count of the soil samples.
Sampling zone Bacteria count (cfu/g)
1 1.0 x 107
2 3.0 x 107
3 4.7 x 106
4 5 x 106
Key: Cfu/g = colony forming units per gram.
Table 4: fungi count of the soil samples.
Sampling zone Fungi count (cfu/g)
1 9.0 x 105
2 1.2 x 106
3 4.1 x 105
4 1.3 x 105
Key: Cfu/g = colony forming units per gram.
Table 5: Aerobic bacteria count of the run- off water samples.
Sampling zone Bacteria count (cfu/g)
1 3.0 x 105
2 6.3 x 106
3 2.8 x 106
4 4.8 x 106
Key: Cfu/g = colony forming units per gram.
Table 6: Fungi count of the run- off water samples.
Sampling zone Fungi count (cfu/g)
1 4.0 x 105
2 2.1 x 106
3 3.0 x 106
4 4.1 x 106
Key: Cfu/g = colony forming units per gram.