The document provides a comprehensive overview of human and veterinary parasitology, covering various types of parasites including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and nematodes. For each category, it details the detection, diagnosis, prophylaxis, and treatment methods for infections caused by these parasites. It includes specific examples such as parvovirus B19, bovine viral diarrhea virus, Yersinia pestis, and discusses their clinical manifestations, treatment options, and preventive measures.

1.  HUMAN CLINICAL & VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY :
DETECTION
DIAGNOSIS
PROPHYLAXIS
TREATMENT BY PHARMACOLOGICAL & NON –
PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS
MADE BY :
DIVYA SONI ( M.Sc )
1

2. INDEX :
TOPIC PAGE NO
 PARASITES OF VIRUS 7-21
 HUMAN 7-12
 Parvovirus B19 ( Fifth disease ) 7
 Detection 8-9
 Diagnosis 10
 Prophylaxis 11
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 11-12
 Diagram 12
 VETERINARY 13-21
 Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus ( BVDV ) [ Bovine Viral Diarrhea ( BVD ) ] 13
 Detection 13-17
 Diagnosis 17-18
 Prophylaxis 19
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 20-21
 Diagram 21
2

3. TOPIC PAGE NO
 PARASITES OF BACTERIA 22-34
 HUMAN 22-30
 Yersinia pestis ( Bubonic Plague ) 22
 Detection 22-23
 Diagnosis 24-25
 Prophylaxis 25-26
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 27-29
 Diagram 30
 VETERINARY 30-34
 Mycoplasma suis ( Eperythrozoonosis ) 30
 Detection 30-31
 Diagnosis 32
 Prophylaxis 33
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 34
3

4. TOPIC PAGE NO
 PARASITES OF FUNGI 35-42
 HUMAN 35-38
 Trichophyton rubrum ( Athlete’s foot ) 35
 Detection 35
 Diagnosis 36
 Prophylaxis 36-37
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 37
 Diagram 38
 VETERINARY 38-42
 Saprolegnia diclina ( Saprolegniasis ) 38
 Detection 38-39
 Diagnosis 40
 Prophylaxis 41
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 41-41
 Diagram 42
4

5. TOPIC PAGE NO
 PARASITES OF PROTOZOA 42-55
 HUMAN 42-48
 Cryptosporidium parvum ( Cryptosporidiosis ) 42
 Detection 42-43
 Diagnosis 44-45
 Prophylaxis 46-47
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 47-48
 Diagram 48
 VETERINARY 49-55
 Eimeria crandallis ( Coccidiosis ) 49
 Detection 49-50
 Diagnosis 50-51
 Prophylaxis 51-53
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 54-55
 Diagram 55
5

6. TOPIC PAGE NO
 PARASITES OF NEMATODES 56-64
 HUMAN 56-60
 Onchocerca volvulus ( Onchocerciasis ) 56
 Detection 56-57
 Diagnosis 57-58
 Prophylaxis 58
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 59-60
 Diagram 60
 VETERINARY 61-64
 Hyostrongylus rubidus ( Hyostrongylosis ) 61
 Detection 61-62
 Diagnosis 62
 Prophylaxis 63
 Treatment by pharmacological & non – pharmacological methods 63-64
 Diagram 64
6

7. PARASITES OF VIRUS :
 HUMAN :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Parvovirus B19 (B19V) / Erythrovirus B19 /
Primate erythrovirus 1 .
It is a single stranded DNA virus and the first only known human virus in the family
Parvoviridae until 2005 .
 MEANING OF NAME : derived from Latin “parvum” meaning “small ”
reflecting B19 ranks among the smallest DNA viruses .
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : Fifth disease (named so because it ranks 5Th
among the 6 classified exanthematous diseases i.e, rash causing diseases in
children and includes measles (1st) , scarlet fever (2nd) , rubella (3rd) , dukes’
disease (4th) , roseola / erythema infectiosum / slapped cheek syndrome / slap
face (6th) .
7

8.  DETECTION :
• IN GENERAL :
 5-7 DAYS AFTER INITIAL INFECTION : Commonly includes a mild non – specific
prodromal illness that consists of –
a) Fever ( 15- 30 % of patients )
b) Headache
c) Myalgia ( pain in the muscles )
d) Malaise
e) Nausea
f) Stuffy / running nose
 APPROXIMATELY ONE WEEK LATER : A bright red macular exanthem (rash) on
the cheeks and often on arms , legs and trunk of the body . Sometimes , this rash
is the first sign of illness that’s noticed .
• SPECIFICALLY :
1) CHILDREN : most commonly a distinctive red rash appears on the face that makes
a child appear to have a “ slapped cheek “ ( defining symptom ) .
Red blotches usually light in colour appear on the trunk , arms and legs .
After few days , rash becomes itchy and takes on a lacy net – like look .
8

9. 2) ADULTS : Joint pain in wrists and ankles along with joint swelling that can last
for weeks to months and very rarely years .
Mild rash which is not always present .
Difficulty in walking and bending joints such as wrists , knees , fingers and shoulders .
3) PREGNANT WOMEN : According to Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (
CDC ) , 50% of pregnant women are immune to this virus so they won’t develop
fifth disease even if they are exposed but in those who aren’t immune , exposure
results in –
a) Joint pain
b) Swelling
c) Mild rash
d) In rare cases , fetus whose mother has contracted the virus develops severe
anaemia which makes difficult for the developing fetus to make red blood cells
(RBC ) and could lead to miscarriage in the 1st trimester ( 1st 3 months ) of
pregnancy .
Less than 5% of pregnant women who contract fifth disease loose their fetus .
4) PEOPLE WITH SICKLE CELL DISEASE OR OTHER FORMS OF CHRONIC HEMOLYTIC
ANAEMIA SUCH AS HEREDITARY SPHERCYTOSIS : Infection precipitates aplastic
crisis ( acute temporary failure of hepatopoietic function in bone marrow .
9

10.  DIAGNOSIS : Mostly laboratory studies are not needed because symptoms are
mild and the illness resolves over 5-7 days .
1) Diagnosis can be done by seeing distinctive rash on the face and the body.
2) SEROLOGY :
a) SPECIFIC ANTIBODY TEST : Determines Parvovirus serology ( anti- parvovirus B19
immunoglobulin M [IgM] and immunoglobulin G [IgG] antibodies ) .
This is especially true in case of pregnancy or in case of compromised immune
system .
Much more prolonged presence of IgG is a sign of past infection .
b) ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOASSAY ( ELISA) : Detection of IgM antibody in case of
current or recent infection .
c) Radioimmunoassay ( RIA )
d) Immunofluorescence
3) DIAGNOSIS OF VIRUS DNA BY :
a) POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION ( PCR ) : diagnose chronic infection and detects
viral DNA present in blood or other tissues/fluids .
b) Dot – blot hybridization
10

11.  PROPHYLAXIS :
1) Since fifth disease is usually transmitted from one person to another through
airborne secretions , we can try to minimize contact with people who are sneezing ,
coughing and blowing their noses as a means of preventive measures.
2) Washing hands regularly can also help reduce the chances of contracting fifth
disease .
 TREATMENT :
 PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
1) To reduce fever & joint pain: Acetaminophen or Ibuprofen (Aspirin should not
be given as it has been linked to a rare but serious illness called Reye Syndrome) .
2) To reduce itching : Topical anesthetic or antihistamine .
 NON – PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) Chronic parvovirus : Intravenous immunoglobulin ( IVIG )
11

12. b) In aplastic patients : Packed RBC transfusions needed .
c) In Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( HIV ) infected patients : Highly active
anti-retroviral therapy restores immune function enabling resolution of chronic
parvovirus B19 infection.
DIAGRAM OF PARVOVIRUS B19 PARTICLE STRUCTURE :
12

13.  NAME OF PARASITE : Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus ( BVDV )
It is a single stranded RNA virus and a member of genus Pestivirus under family
Flaviviridae .
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : Bovine Viral Diarrhea ( BVD )
It is the economic disease of cattle that is endemic in the majority of countries
throughout the world .
 DETECTION : Disease induced by BVDV vary in severity , duration and organ
system involved . The clinical signs include :
 IN ADULTS :
1) SUB -CLINICAL BVD INFECTION :
a) 95% of animals infected do not develop signs of disease .
b) This includes infection without any clinical signs followed by seroconversion
which is the most common infection in the field .
13
 VETERINARY :

14. 2) PERACUTE BVD DISEASE :
a) Affected animals exhibit high fevers ( 107-110 degree fahrenheit ) , occasional
diarrhea , respiratory disease and loss of appetite or anorexia .
b) Affect cattle's of all ages and often result in death of the animals with 48 hours of
the onset of disease .
3) ACUTE BVD DISEASE :
a) Characterized by fever (104-106 degree fahrenheit ) , yellow discharge from nose
and eyes , diarrhea that may contain mucus and blood .
b) Lethargy
c) Decreased milk production
d) Range from mild disease of high morbidity and low mortality to severe enteric
disease with considerable mortality .
e) Depression
f) Transient inappetence
g) Rapid respiration
h) Excessive lacrimation
In this acute infection , the disease is usually masked by secondary infections that
cause diarrhea and pneumonia .
14

15. 4) CHRONIC BVD DISEASE :
a) Chronically infected animal usually appear unthrifty and starving.
b) Exhibit depression , crusted muzzle ( projecting part of the face including
nose and mouth i.e., snout ) , bald spots due to loss of hair , lameness
(abnormal gait / stance ) .
c) Death occurs more rapidly in chronically infected animals .
d) May lead to signs of mucosal disease which is uncommon but highly fatal
form of BVD occurring in persistently infected cattle that become super
infected with cytopathic BVDV resulting in mutation of resident , persistent
non-cytopathic BVDV ( in this case , cytopathic virus is antigenically similar to
resident non-cytopathic virus ) .
 IN PREGNANT CATTLE :
a) BVDV is capable of passing easily in utero from an infected cow to the fetus
which is particularly vulnerable during first 6 months of pregnancy .
b) Death of the fetus is common if infection occurs during the first 120 days of
pregnancy .
15

16. 16
 IN CALVES : most commonly recognized birth defect of cerebella hypoplasia
whose signs include :
a) Ataxia ( lack of voluntary co-ordination of muscle movements )
TIME OF
INFECTION
CLINICAL OUTCOME
First 3
months
 Resorption , mummification or abortion
 History of repeat breeding with increased interval
between estrous .
42-145 days  Calf born persistently infected with BVDV if fetus
survives .
72-120 days  Skeletal malformation and retardation .
 Congenital defects of eye and CNS .
Late in
pregnancy
 Calves born with precolostrum antibodies to BVDV .

17. b) Tremors ( involuntary shaking or movement )
c) Wide stance
d) Stumbling
e) Failure to nurse
 DIAGNOSIS :
1) BASED ON CLINICAL SPECIMENS : Nasal discharge , feces , blood smear , acute
and convalescent sera .
2) IN CASE OF SUB- CLINICAL INFECTION :
a) SEVERE OUTBREAKS : History of disease together with clinical and pathological
findings are strongly indicative of diarrhea mucosal disease complex .
b) MILD OUTBREAKS : Possible diagnosis can be done by isolation and
identification of causative agent virus and appropriate serological tests i.e., virus
neutralization test , immunofluorescence test , complement fixation test, agar gel
diffusion test .
3) PACE TEST : detects persistently infected cattles .
4) AGID TEST : blood test that detects Pestivirus antibodies in the blood .
17

18. DIAGNOSTIC TEST RELATIVE
COST
SPECIMEN USED FOR
1) Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR) [ most sensitive tool for
early identification ]
Low to
high
Serum
Whole blood
Tissue
Identifying persistently
infected ( PI ) animals
and acute infections
2) Immunohistochemistry ( IHC ) of
skin
Low Skin usually ear Identifying PI animals
3) Antigen Capture ELISA ( ACE ) of
serum
Low Serum Identifying PI animals
4) Antigen Capture ELISA ( Ace ) of
skin
Low Skin usually from ear Identifying PI animals
5) Virus Isolation Moderate
to high
Serum
Whole blood
Tissue
Identifying persistently
infected animals and
acute infections
6) Immunoperoxidase Assay Moderate Serum
Whole blood
Identifying PI animals
7) Virus Neutralization or Antibody
ELISA
Low Serum Identification of virus
exposure ( not for
identifying PI animals )
18

19.  PROPHYLAXIS :
1) Hygienic management :
a) Maintenance of good sanitation .
b) Routine disinfection of contaminated areas .
c) Prevention of contamination from outside sources by disinfection .
2) Elimination of persistently infected cattle .
3) Prevention of contact with neighbouring cattle of unknown status .
4) Protection of pregnant animals from potential sources of exposure during first
trimester .
5) Prevention of mixing of animal groups immediately before breeding and during
first trimester .
6) Testing bull semen for virus before use as it can transmit BVDV .
7) Purchase of open animals that are known to be BVD negative before purchase .
8) Vaccination of cow herd yearly twice in first year and then once every year after
that .
e.g. Pestigard vaccine is given 2 shots in the 1st year and one shot every year after that.
19

20.  TREATMENT BY :
 PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
20
Trade Name Of
Drugs
Company Composition Trade Dose Pack Size
Dirovet Techno 2gm
metronidazole
1b/50 kg body
weight (orally)
Tablet
Amodisvet Square 2gm
metronidazole
1b/50 kg body
weight (orally)
Tablet
Renamycin Reneta 50,100 mg
oxytetracycline
5-10 mg/kg
( intramuscular
, intravenous )
10 ml vial
Dimidin Techno 333 mg/ml
sulphadimidin
15-30 ml/ 50 kg
(intramuscular
, intravenous )
30,100 ml

21.  NON – PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) Fluid and electrolyte therapy : used in cases of severe acute disease and are
of seldom benefit for diarrhea and water loss .
a) Administration of antiserum : may be of benefit in outbreaks of acute
disease .
21

22. PARASITES OF BACTERIA :
 HUMAN :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Yersinia pestis ( Lehmann and Neumann , 1896 )
It is a gram negative , non – motile , rod shaped , facultative anaerobic bacteria .
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : Bubonic plague ( term “bubonic“ is derived
from Greek word meaning “groin” ) or black death or great plague .
It is the most common type of plague , though rare , it is a serious bacterial
infection and one of the most devastating pandemics in human history .
 DETECTION :
 DAY 1 : painful swellings of lymph glands called “buboes” appears in the
groin, armpits , neck region of the victim caused by the bite of fleas infected
with Yersinia pestis . These are usually about size of an egg but sometimes
can be as big as an apple .
 DAY 2 : High Fever ( > 39 degree Celsius or 102.2 degree Fahrenheit )
22

23. • General ill feeling ( malaise )
• Diarrhea
• Nausea
• Continuous vomiting of blood ( hematemesis )
 DAY 3 : bleeding under the skin causes dark blotches or black dots (lenticulae)
scattered all over the body .
 DAY 4 : disease attacks the nervous system which causes the victim to suffer
spasms and terrible pain .
 DAY 5 :
a) Sometimes , buboes burst out and a foul smelling black liquid oozes out from
the open buboes .
b) Extreme pain caused due to decay or decomposition of skin while the subject
is still alive .
c) In most cases , victim suffers painful death .
1-7 days after exposure to bacteria flu-like symptoms develop .
Most victims die 2-7 days after initial infection .
23

24.  DIAGNOSIS :
1) IDENTIFICATION OF Yersinia pestis CULTURE :
a) Confirmation of infection can be done by examining serum taken during early and
late stages of infection .
b) 27-96 % of blood cultures are positive for Y. pestis in patients with bubonic
plague .
 Sample taken for testing includes :
a) Characteristic swollen lymph nodes’ (buboes) fluid taken with a needle .
b) Blood
2) NUCLEAR IMAGING : help to localize areas of lymphadenitis and meningeal
inflammation .
3) FLUORESCENCE ANTIBODY POSITIVITY : gives an intense green staining around
the cell wall of Y. pestis
4) LEUKOCYTOSIS WITH A PREDOMINANCE NEUTROPHILS : degree of leukocytes is
proportional to the severity of illness .
5) RENAL FUNCTION TEST : abnormal
24

25. 6) PERIPHERAL BLOOD SMEAR : shows toxic granulations and Dohle bodies .
7) TESTS PERFORMED TO CHECK LEVELS : shows elevated levels of serum
transaminase , bilirubin , fibrin degradation products .
 PROPHYLAXIS :
1) Control of fleas :
a) Most effective method to break the chain of transmission is destruction of rat
fleas by insecticides.
b) 10 % DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) and 3 % BHC (Benzene
hexachloride) are used as dust .
c) In areas of resistance to one or both of these , dust of carbaryl (2%) or
malathion (5%) is used .
2) Control of rodents : elimination of rodent habitat around home is an
important preventive measure .
3) Health education : emphasis must be placed on need for prompt reporting of
dead rats and suspected human cases .
4) Surveillance : essential in areas where natural plague foci exist or where
there is history of past infection .
25

26. 5) Vaccination : should be carried out atleast week before an anticipated
outbreaks and the vaccine should be given in two doses .
26
AGE AND SEX PRIMARY INOCULATION BOOSTER DOSE
( 6 MONTHLY )
1ST DOSE 2ND DOSE
Infants under 6 months
are not immunized
- - -
Children :
1-4 years
5-10 years
11-16 years
0.2 ml
0.3 ml
0.4 ml
0.2 ml
0.6 ml
0.8 ml
0.2 ml
0.3 ml
0.4 ml
Adult :
Male
Female
1 ml
0.75 ml
1.5 ml
1 ml
1 ml
0.75 ml

27.  TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
27
CATEGORY ANTIBIOTICS DOSE ROUTE OF
ADMINISTRATION
CHILDREN
1) PREFERRED AGENTS :
Streptomycin
15 mg /kg twice
daily ( maximum
daily dose – 2g)
Intramuscular (IM)
Gentamicin 2.5 mg/kg every 8 hours Intramuscular or
intravenous (IV)
2) ALTERNATING AGENTS:
Doxycycline
( for children >= 8 years )
a) Weight <45 kg :
2.2 mg/kg twice daily
(maximum daily dose –
200 mg)
b) Weight >=45 kg :
100 mg twice daily or 200
mg once daily ( same
as adult dose)
Intravenous
Intravenous

28. CATEGORY ANTIBIOTICS DOSE ROUTE OF
ADMINITRATION
CHILDREN
Ciprofloxacin 15mg/kg twice daily
(maximum daily dose-1g)
Intravenous
Chloramphenicol
( for children>= 2 years )
25mg/kg every 6 hours
(maximum daily dose – 4g)
Intravenous
ADULTS
1) PREFERRED AGENTS:
Streptomycin 1g twice daily Intramuscular
Gentamicin
5mg/kg once daily or
2mg/kg loading dose
followed by 1.7mg/kg every
8 hours
Intramuscular or
intravenous (IV)
2) ALTERNATING AGENTS:
Doxycycline 100mg twice daily or 200mg
once daily
Intravenous
Ciprofloxacin 400mg twice daily Intravenous
Chloramphenicol 25mg/kg every 6 hours Intravenous
28

29. People infected with plague need immediate treatment and should be given
antibiotics within 24 hours of first symptoms to prevent death .
Using broad based antibiotic streptomycin has proven to be dramatically
successful against bubonic plague within 12 hours of infection .
2) NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : includes oxygen , intravenous fluids and
respiratory support .
29
CATEGORY ANTIBIOTICS DOSE ROUTE OF
ADMINITRATION
PREGNANT
WOMEN
1) PREFERRED AGENTS:
Gentamicin
5mg/kg once daily or
2mg/kg loading dose
followed by 1.7mg/kg
every 8 hours
Intramuscular or
intravenous (IV)
2) ALTERNATING AGENTS:
Doxycycline 100mg twice daily or
200mg once daily
Intravenous
Ciprofloxacin 400mg twice daily Intravenous

30. 30
 VETERINARY :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Mycoplasma suis ( genus Mycoplasma by J.Nowak,
1929) or Eperythrozoon suis ( Splitter,1950)
 NAME OF DISEASE : Eperythrozoonosis (sporadic disease usually observed in
young , growing pigs)
 DETECTION : detection of the disease in sows , piglets , weaners and growers
are shown in the following table -

31. 31
SOWS PIGLETS WEANERS AND GROWERS
Fever
( 40-42 degree Celsius or
105-107 degree Fahrenheit )
Anemia
Increased respiration
Anoestrous
Pale skin
Agalactia ( no milk )
Abortion
Sows become debilitated
and pale with jaundice .
Bleeding into tissues
Poor conception rate
Reproductive failure
Anorexia ( lack or loss of
appetite for food ) .
Delayed returns to estrous
Stillbirths
In severe case , jaundice
may result .
Secondary infections tend to
occur .
More chronic cases result in
slow growth and poor doing
pigs .
Pale ,anemic pigs
Pneumonia
Increased scour
( sloppy diarrhea )
Ear necrosis
Pot –bellied pale pigs
Pneumonia
Fever
Slow or variable growth
Enteritis ( sloppy diarrhea)

32.  DIAGNOSIS :
1) Polymerase Chain Reaction ( PCR )
2) Identification of organism in blood smears stained with Wright Giemsa or Diff
– Quick stains : organism are usually found on the surface of erythrocytes
and/or in the plasma .
3) Examination of packed cell volume (PCV) and hemoglobin levels from blood
samples :
4) Identification of organisms in blood smears stained with acridine orange :
Blood smears collected in anti-coagulant (heparin or acid citrate dextrose)
examined by fluorescent microscopy helps in identification of Mycoplasma suis
during early acute stages of the disease. In this , 1 ml of blood collected can be
mixed with an equal part of 10 % formalin and then smear made from this
preparation can be stained with acridine orange .
5) Indirect Hemagglutination (IHA) test
6) Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ( ELISA )
32
NORMAL PIGS AFFECTED PIGS
PCV HEMOGLOBIN LEVELS PCV HEMOGLOBIN LEVELS
35 % 9-14 g per 100 ml 24 % 3-7 g per 100 ml

33.  PROPHYLAXIS :
1) GENERAL :
a) Precautions are taken when vaccinating large numbers by changing needles
every 2-3 sows and gilts .
b) Needle is wiped between each animal with cotton wool and surgical spirit .
c) Control of biting insects .
2) SPECIFICALLY IN :
33
SOWS PIGLETS WEANERS AND GROWERS
Prevention or control of
vulval and tail biting .
Control of internal
parasites.
Plastic arm sleeves should
be worn while attending a
farrowing .
Feedback should not be
carried out using placenta
or farrowing liquids .
Tools should be cleaned and
needles should be replaced
as spread occurs during
tailing , teething and iron
injections .
Prevention of fight at
weaning .
Reduction of mixing .
Control of respiratory
diseases .
Control of biting insects .
Prevention of spread
through vaccination and
inoculations between pigs .

34.  TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) OXYTETRACYCLINE ( OTC ) : piglets are injected with OTC at 10mg/kg daily
for 4 days or long acting preparation of 3 injections each 2 days apart are
used .
b) ARSANILIC ACID : medicated in feed at 85g/tonnes .
c) OTC IN FEED : oxytetracycline is medicated to sows in feed at 800g/tonnes
of for 4 weeks and is repeated 4 weeks later again .
d) Response to other medications is poor .
2) NON - PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : no such therapy is prevalent for
the treatment of Eperythrozoonosis disease .
34

35. PARASITES OF FUNGI :
 HUMAN :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Trichophyton rubrum ( dermatophyte )
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : Athlete’s foot ( named because commonly seen in
athletes ) or tinea pedia or ringworm of foot ( this disease is not serious but
sometimes it is hard to cure ) .
 DETECTION :
1) Itching , burning and stinging between toes or soles of feet .
2) Itchy blisters on feet .
3) Dry , raw , flaky , scaly , cracking , red rashes on skin on the soles or on the sides of
the feet .
4) Cracking and peeling off skin on feet most commonly between toes and soles.
5) Discoloured thick and crumbly toenails .
6) Toenails are pulled away from nail bed .
7) Excessive dryness of skin specially on the bottom or on the sides of the skin .
8) Moccasin variety of athlete’s foot causes chronic dryness and scaling on soles that
extends upside of foot .
9) Sometimes , skin cracks and there may be oozing and bursting .
35

36.  DIAGNOSIS :
Diagnosis is done by symptoms or doctor may order a skin test if they are not sure
that the fungal infection is causing the symptoms .
SKIN LESION POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE TEST : This is the most common test
performed for diagnosis of athlete’s foot . In this test , doctor scraps off small area
of infected skin and places it in potassium hydroxide (KOH) which destroys normal
human cells and leaves the fungal cells untouched so they are easy to be seen
under microscope .
 PROPHYLAXIS :
1) Feet and socks should be washed everyday and dry them thoroughly especially
toes .
2) Bed sheets , towels should be washed with water that is 140 degree Fahrenheit or
60 degree Celsius higher .
3) Shoes are to be disinfected with disinfectant wipes (Clorox wipes) or sprays .
4) Antifungal powder is used on feet everyday .
5) Shoes , socks ,towels should not be shared .
6) Socks should be changed when feet gets sweaty .
7) Feet should be air out by going barefoot at home .
8) Shoes of synthetic material such as rubber/vinyl should be avoided and light , well
ventilated shoes should be worn .
36

37. 9) Two pairs of shoes should be alternatively worn by wearing each pair every other
day to give shoes time to dry out between uses as moisture will allow fungus to
continue growing .
10) Socks made of breathable fibres such as cotton or wool or made of synthetic fibres
should be worn that will keep moisture away from skin .
 TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : often treated with over the counter antifungal
medications –
2) NON - PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : Tea tree oil has been used as an
alternative therapy to treat athlete’s foot with some success .
Study from 2002 reported that 50 % solution of tea tree oil effectively treated
athlete’s foot in 64 % of trial participants .
37
TOPICAL (applied directly onto skin ) ORAL ( applied orally i.e. mouth )
Miconazole ( Desenex )
Terbinafine ( Lamisil AT )
Clotrimazole ( Lotrimin AF )
Butenafine ( Lotrimin Ultra )
Tolnaftate ( Tinactin )
Itraconazole ( Sporanox )
Fluconazole ( Diflucan )

38. Structure of Trichophyton rubrum
 VETERINARY :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Saprolegnia diclina (water moulds)
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : saprolegniasis (ectoparasitic disease of fish caused by
fungus)
 DETECTION :
1) Lethargy of fish and loss of equilibrium .
38

39. 2) Presence of characterized cotton – like , white to grey growth on the skin ,
gills or eyes of fishes or in the fish eggs .
3) In severe cases , 80 % of the body may be covered with fungal growth .
4) Infected eggs are opaque in color with growth of fungus on egg surface .
5) Respiratory distress may be evident if gills are involved and death can follow
rapidly .
6) Scales are lifted away from body surface of fish .
7) In early infections , skin lesions are grey or white in color with a characteristic
circular or crescent shape which can develop rapidly causing destruction of
the epidermis .
8) Necrosis of gills and membranous part of gills may occur .
9) Saprolegnia sp. leads to death by hemodilution or osmoregulatory failure .
 Time of death due to saprolegniasis depends on –
a) Initial site of infection
b) Type of tissue destroyed
c) Growth rate of fungus
d) Ability of the fish to withstand stress of a fungus invasion .
39

40.  DIAGNOSIS :
1) SKIN SCRAPS : examined under microscope helps to identify fungal hyphae which
belong to Saprolegnia sp.
This observation of a cottony proliferative growth on the skin or gills alerts the
clinician to a possible diagnosis of saprolegniasis .
2) Direct smear from fungal growth , presence of long branched non – septate hyphae
help to diagnose saprolegniasis .
3) Isolation and identification of Saprolegnia sp. Using cultural method .
4) HISTOPATHOLOGY : reveals fungus invading the stratum spongiosum of dermis and
then the epidermis causing erosions as it spreads. Numerous hyphae will be seen
underneath , dermal necrosis and edema .
5) Recently , polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies raised against various species of
Saprolegnia sp. indicate developing a rapid antibody assay for the detection of
Saprolegnia sp. infection in fish .
6) GROCOTT’S METHANAMINE SILVER METHOD : coenocytic , irregularly branched
hyphae stains brown to black .
7) PAS – LIGHT GREEN : hyphae stains pink to red .
The last two techniques or methods are the most popular techniques for diagnosis.
40

41.  PROPHYLAXIS :
1) Avoiding damage of skin during transportation of fish .
2) Right kind of food with sufficient amount must be provided to fish .
3) Overcrowding of fish must be prevented to avoid injury especially during
spawning .
4) Preventing introduction of new fish to the fish farm until known that fish are free
from disease .
5) Disinfection of the equipments and utensils to prevent spread of infection .
6) Maintenance of good management practices like good quality water and
circulation .
 TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) Involves treatment of fish and fish eggs with formalin , copper sulphate (CuSO4) ,
potassium permanganate (KMnO4) , sodium chloride (NaCl) , malachite green ,
acetic acid (CH3COOH) , hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and iodophors using
different doses at different intervals depending on fish species , severity of
infection and climatic conditions .
b) Bath treatment : salt baths in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) [ 10-25 g/lit for 10-20
mins ] , potassium permanganate (KMnO4) [ 1g in 100 lit of water for 30-90
mins] , copper sulphate (CuSO4) [5-10 g in 100 lit water for 10-30 mins] .
41

42.  NON - PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : treatment is mainly done by
pharmacological methods .
Structure of Saprolegnia diclina
PARASITES OF PROTOZOA :
 HUMAN :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Cryptosporidium parvum ( genus Cryptosporidium by Tyzzer ,
1907) . It is an enteric parasite .
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : Cryptosporidiosis
 DETECTION : symptoms generally begin 2-10 days (on average 7) after becoming
infected with parasite .
1) IN HEALTHY ADULTS : watery diarrhea (lasts for about 2 weeks) , stomach
cramps and pain .
42

43. 2) IN INFANTS : severe fluid loss due to diarrhea or severe vomiting is extremely
fatal .
3) IN IMMUNOCOMPROMISED PERSONS (weakened immune system) :
a) Develop serious chronic and sometimes fatal illness .
b) Small intestine is the most commonly affected site but other areas of digestive or
respiratory tract is also affected .
 CATEGORIES OF PERSONS WITH WEAKENED IMMUNE SYSTEM :
1) People with HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus ) / AIDS (Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome) :
a) Severe diarrhea
b) Malabsorption in these patients may also be associated with infection which can
migrate to other areas of body such as stomach and breathing system .
c) Oocysts may infect lungs and trachea and results in cough .
2) People with inherited diseases that affect immune system .
3) Cancer and transplant patients who are taking certain immunosuppressive
drugs : risk of developing severe disease may differ depending on each person’s
degree of immune suppression .
43

44.  DIAGNOSIS :
1) EXAMINATION OF STOOL SAMPLES : because detection of Cryptosporidium
parvum can be difficult , patients may be asked to submit several stool
samples over several days .
 Preservation of stool specimens : The stool specimens are preserved in 10 %
buffered formalin or sodium acetate – acetic acid – formalin (SAF) to render
oocytes non – viable. [contact time between formalin necessary to kill oocytes
is not clear so atleast 16-24 hours is suggested ] .
 Stool samples are examined microscopically using different techniques :
a) Acid – base staining (most frequently used in clinical labs)
b) Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) staining : These are reportedly superior to
conventional microscopic examination and show good co-relation with
monoclonal antibody based immunofluorescence assays .
c) Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
2) MOLECULAR METHODS : includes agarose gel (2%) analysis of Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR) diagnostic test for detection of Cryptosporidium
parvum DNA .
44

45. AGAROSE GEL (2%) ANALYSIS OF PCR DIAGNOSTIC TEST FOR
DETECTION OF Cryptosporidium parvum
 PCR was performed using primers CPBDIAGF and
CPBDIAGR
 LANE S : molecular base pair standard (100bp-ladder)
 Left arrow shows the size of standard bands .
 LANE 1 : C. parvum positive fecal specimen denoted here.
 Right arrow shows diagnostic band of 435bp for zoonotic
Cryptosporidium parvum
3) ANTIBODY DETECTION : There are currently no commercially available
serologic assays for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum specific antibodies.
However , immunoblasts for detecting 17 and 27 kDa sporozoite’s antigens
associated with recent infection may be useful for epidemiologic
investigations .
4) CONCENTRATION VIA MODIFIED ZINC SULPHATE FLOATATION OR SUGAR
FLOATATION : This has also proven to be successful especially when treated
sample is examined under phase contrast microscopy . Merozoites and
gametocytes are usually recovered only in the intestinal biopsy material .
45

46.  PROPHYLAXIS :
1) MAINTAINING GOOD HYGIENE : Good hygiene should be maintained by washing
hands with soap and water specially during key times when we are likely to
spread germs .
2) DISINFECTION OF POTENTIALLY INFECTED EQUIPMENT : Potentially infected
equipments should be disinfected with full strength commercial bleach or 5-10 %
household ammonia to prevent and control C. parvum .
3) CHILDCARE FACILITIES : Toys and surfaces should be cleaned , sanitized and
disinfected to prevent germs from spreading easily .
4) FOOD HYGIENE : Contaminated foods should be avoided . For example , if one
drinks apple cider or milk , then only pasteurized products should be consumed .
5) WATER HYGIENE :
a) Untreated water or untreated ice from lakes , rivers , springs , ponds , streams or
shallow wells should not be consumed .
b) In case of doubt of safety of drinking water , following can be used –
i. Commercially bottled water .
ii. Filter designed to remove Cryptosporidium parvum that includes –
 Label that might read “NSF 53” or “NSF 58”
 Filter label that read “absolute pore size of 1 micron/smaller “ are effective .
46

47. 6) HEALTHY SWIMMING :
a) Kids with diarrhea should not be allowed to swim .
b) Water should not be swallowed while swimming in ocean , lake , rivers and pools .
7) PRACTISE SAFE SEX :
a) A person should wait to have sex (vaginal , anal , oral) for 2 weeks after he/she no
longer has diarrhea .
b) Contact with poop should be reduced during sex by –
i. Washing hands , genitals , anus with soap and water before and after sexual
activity .
ii. Using barrier methods during sex by using condoms , dental dams , cut open
condoms and using latex gloves during fingering or fisting .
 TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) Nitazoxanide : only drug approved for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis in
immunocompetent hosts as of January 2015 by Food and Drug Administration
(FDA)
 MODE OF ACTION : interferes with folate production and prevents parasite’s
replication .
47

48. Structure of Cryptosporidium
parvum oocyst
b) Antidiarrheal medicines : helps to slow down diarrhea .
c) Paromomycin : decreases infection intensity and improves intestinal
functions .
d) Zinc supplementary medicines : may improve symptoms particularly in
recurrent or persistent infections or in others at risk for the zinc deficiency .
2) NON - PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : gastrointestinal infection treatment
involves –
a) Fluid rehydration
b) Electrolyte replacement
c) Keeping the body hydrated
d) In immunocompromised persons like AIDS patients : The patient is treated
with antiretrovirus and immune system needs to be strengthened to treat
cryptosporidiosis .
48

49.  VETERINARY :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Eimeria crandallis (genus Eimeria by Schneider , 1875).
It is an obligate intracellular parasite .
 NAME OF DISEASE : Coccidiosis ( parasitic disease affecting variety of animals
specially sheep , goat , dog , chicken and cattles ) .
 DETECTION : In sheep and goats –
1) Diarrhea ( not always ) either bloody or watery
2) Dirty tails and hocks
3) Lack of appetite
4) Depression
5) Weight loss
6) Poor hair coat
7) Thin , loss of body condition
8) Straining and pain
9) Dehydration
10) Weakness
11) Death
Sheep and goats with subclinical disease do not show obvious signs of the
disease . They appear outwardly normal but suffer from reduced feed
49

50. consumption and feed conversion and growth performance . Most cases of
coccidiosis are subclinical and from an economic standpoint , subclinical coccidiosis
is probably the most costly . Most animals infected with coccidian parasites are
asymptomatic but young or immunocompromised animals may suffer severe
symptoms and death .
 DIAGNOSIS :
1) Flock or farm history
2) Observation of clinical findings or signs
3) Microscopic examination of faeces : large number of oocysts in faeces may be
indicative of clinical coccidiosis .
 CONDITIONS :
a) Oocyst count of 5000 is considered clinically significant .
b) Oocyst count of 50,000-100,000 is considered to have no clear threshold for
treatment .
c) Low count less than 5000 does not rule out coccidiosis as diarrhea may precede
oocyst shedding .
d) High count of oocyst can occur without clinical disease .
4) Post mortem examination : This gives the confirmation to coccidiosis diagnosis
and is the most reliable indicator of clinical coccidiosis . Diagnosis shows -
50

51. a) White nodules on intestinal mucosa
b) Thickening of intestinal wall
c) Blood in rumen
5) Dry smears stained with Giemsa and wet smears stained with hematoxylin
stains : Sporozoites within the oocyst are removed by Giemsa staining after acid
hydrolysis or by staining with hematoxylin stains .
 PROPHYLAXIS :
1) Maintenance of good hygienic husbandry conditions :
a) Regular removal of manure and wasted feed .
b) Designing feeders and water systems that minimize faecal contamination .
c) Providing clean supply of water .
d) Cleaning water tanks and feeders regularly .
e) Ensuring sunlight enters sufficiently .
f) To ensure that watering systems do not leak .
g) Prevent mixing of different aged animals .
h) Cleaning of animals specially teats .
i) Minimizing stocking densities . 51

52. 2) Good nutrition :
a) Good quality diet is given to ensure good milk production .
b) Adequate consumption of colostrums by newborn .
c) Good quality milk replacers for artificially reared lambs .
d) Females should be fed to ensure sufficient colostrum quality and quantity .
e) Use of coccidiostats as feed additives : These feed additives prevent
coccidiosis in sheep and goats and they include –
i. FOR CONFINED SHEEP : Bovatec (Lasalocid) [FDA approved]
ii. FOR CONFINED GOAT : Rumensin (Monensin) [FDA approved]
iii. YOUNG , NON-LACTATING SHEEP AND GOAT : Deccox (Decoquinate) [FDA
approved]
3) Reduction of stress factors :
a) Avoiding drafts and temperature fluctuations .
b) Providing shelter from inclement weather . 52

53. Sample dosages for corid are from coccidiosis in lambs by Dr. Joe Rook , Michigan Sate
University
FEED & WATER ADDITIVES FOR PREVENTING COCCIDIOSIS IN SHEEP & GOAT
TRADE
NAME
DRUG DOSAGE FDA APPROVED
Per hd/day IN FEED
Bovatec Lasalocid 15-70 mg/daily 20-30 g/ton Sheep in
confinement
Corid Amprolium
8 oz of 9.6 % solution per 100 gallons of
drinking water for 21 days . Rx only
10 oz (1.5 oz of 9.6 % solution in 1 pint
of water) per 100 lbs daily for 21 days .
Deccox Decoquinate 22.7 mg/100 lbs
body weight
13.6 g/ton Young , non –
lactating sheep
and goats .
Rumensin Monensin - 20 g/ton Goats in
confinement
toxic to equines .
53

54. Sample dosages are from the fact sheet coccidiosisin lambs by dr. Joe Rook ,
Michigan State University
 TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : no medications to treat coccidiosis are FDA
approved and extra label drug use is needed .
54
MEDICATIONS TO TREAT COCCIDIOSIS IN SHEEPS
DRUG TRADE
NAME
DOSAGE MEAT
WITHDRAWALDILUTION DURATION
Amprolium Corid 1 pint of 9.6 % solution in 100
gallons of drinking water .
5 days 7-21 days
1 oz (3 oz 9.6 % solution in 1
pint of water) per 100 lbs daily .
5 days 7-21 days
Sulfadimet-
hoxine
Albon
Dimetho
x
1 pint of 12.5 % solution in 25
gallons of drinking water .
3-5 days 1 day
4 cc of 12.5 % solution per 25 lbs
of body weight daily .
3-5 days 1 day

55. 2) NON – PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) Fluid therapy
b) Nutritional support
c) Low stress environment
d) Palatable feed
Structure of Eimeria crandallis oocyts
55

56. PARASITES OF NEMATODES :
 HUMAN :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Onchocerca volvulus ( Bickel ,1982 )
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : Onchocerciasis or river blindness (parasitic
tropical disease which is the world’s second leading cause of blindness due to
infection after trachoma occurring fewer than 5 thousand cases per year in
India) .
 MEANING OF THE NAME OF THE DISEASE “RIVER BLINDNESS” : This disease
is transmitted by the bite of black fly ( Simulium sp.) which breeds in fast
flowing streams and rivers increasing risk of blindness to individuals living
nearby , hence it is commonly called “river blindness” .
 DETECTION :
1) Severe itching , disfiguring skin conditions
2) Eye lesions which leads to visual impairment including permanent blindness
56

57. 3) Bumps under skin
4) Acute papular onchodermatitis - scattered pruritic papules .
5) Chronic papular onchodermatitis - larger papules resulting in hyper -
pigmentation .
6) Lichenified onchodermatitis - hyper pigmented papules and plagues with
edema , lymphadenopathy , pruritis and common secondary bacterial
infections .
7) Skin atrophy - loss of elasticity , skin resembles tissue paper , lizard – like
appearance .
8) Depigmentation - leopard skin like appearance usually on anterior lower leg .
9) Glaucoma effect - eyes malfunction begin to see shadows or nothing .
 DIAGNOSIS :
1) Best understood diagnosis is identification of microfilariae in bloodless skin
snips . For this , small piece of skin is raised with needle and clipped with
razor or scissors and identification of microfilariae can be done .
In heavily infected individuals , microfilariae can even be found in blood ,
sputum .
Buttocks and legs are often most heavily affected and are most likely to
yield microfilariae .
57

58. 2) EXAMINATION OF SKIN CHANGES : Onchocerciasis causes different kinds of
skin changes which vary in different geographical regions . They include –
a) Leopard skin : spotted depigmentation of skin that may occur due to
onchocerciasis .
b) Elephant skin : thickening of skin .
c) Lizard skin : loss of elasticity of skin .
 PROPHYKAXIS :
1) Vector control :
a) Application of environmentally safe insecticide such as DEET ( N,N- Diethyl –
meta-toluamide or diethyltoluamide ) to black fly breeding areas during rainy
season i.e., in flowing rivers .
b) Spraying of larvicide to control population enhancement .
2) Wearing long sleeves and pants to prevent from fly bite .
3) Avoiding areas of black fly breeding places and the day when the Simulium
sp. tend to bite .
4) Mass treatment with ivermectin .
58

59.  TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) Ivermectin ( trade name : Mectizan ) :
i. World Health Organization ( WHO ) recommends treating with ivermectin
atleast once yearly between 10-15 years .
ii. In Mass Drug Administration ( MDA ) programme , treatment of
onchocerciasis is ivermectin which is given in 2 doses repeatedly for 3 years
with a gap of 6 months . The drug dosage is 150 micron/kg .
 MODE OF ACTION : Ivermectin kills parasite by interfering with nervous
system and muscle function in particular by enhancing inhibitory
neurotransmission . The drug irreversibly activates glutamate – gated
chloride channel receptors in worm eventually causing inhibitory post –
synaptic potential . Chance of future action potential occurring in synapses
between neurons decreases and nematode experience flaccid paralysis
followed by death .
b) Moxidectin : approved for onchocerciasis in 2018 for people over age 11 in
United States .
59

60. c) Doxycycline : kills Wolbachia bacteria that resides in adult worms .
This shows significantly lower microfilarial loads in host and may kill adult
worms due to symbiotic relationship between Wolbachia and worm .
In four separate trials since 10 years with various dosing regimes of
doxycycline for individualized treatment , doxycycline was found to be
effective in sterilizing females worms and reducing their numbers over
period of 4-6 weeks .
2) NON - PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : include surgical removal of nodules .
Structure of Onchocerca volvulus
60

61.  VETERINARY :
 NAME OF PARASITE : Hyostrongylus rubidus ( Hasall and Stiles , 1892 )
It is red stomach worms of pigs .
 NAME OF DISEASE CAUSED : Hyostrongylosis ( surveys in certain countries
have shown upto 30 % of the animals in a herd to be infected ) .
 DETECTION :
1) Poor feed utilization
2) Reduced weight gain
3) Larvae in the nodules destroy glandular tissue in the stomach wall
4) Adult worms suck blood and irritate the stomach wall which can cause
catarrhal gastritis with excessive secretion of mucus , sometimes with
ulceration .
5) Parietal cells are replaced by proliferating immature cells that produce
nodules .
6) Loss of appetite 61

62. 6) Anemia
7) Diarrhea
8) Heavy infections may produce ulceration of gastric mucosa with excessive
bleeding from ruptured blood vessels giving rise to hemorrhagic gastritis .
 DIAGNOSIS :
1) EXAMINATION OF FAECES : diagnosis of the disease can be done by
identifying worm eggs in the faeces but since the eggs are very similar to
those of other pig roundworms ( e.g. Oesophagostomum sp. ) faecal cultures
that allow 13 larvae to develop are advisable .
2) POST MORTEM EXAMINATION OF STOMACH : reveals the nodules in the
mucosa and the free adult worms visible by naked eye .
3) MUCOSAL SCRAPPINGS FOR MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION : This is essential
for detection of immature Hyostrongylus rubidus .
62

63.  PROPHYLAXIS :
1) Systematic and thorough removal of all manure and keeping the facilities dry
reduces risk of infection .
2) Reduction of infectivity of environment : since development of eggs to
infective L3- larvae takes atleast 5 days , removing all manure in shorter
intervals can break the life cycle and hence the infectivity of the environment
can be reduced .
3) Annual rotation of pastures with other livestock or crops would reduce
pasture contamination .
4) Care must be taken with rotating livestock if the pigs also harbor ascarid
infections .
 TREATMENT BY :
1) PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS :
a) For adult worms : numerous antihelmintics are effective and administered
orally as feed additives or drenches . They include -
63

64. Structure of Hyostrongylus rubidus
i. Benzimidazoles : Albendazole , fenbendazole , flubendazole , mebendazole ,
oxfendazole
ii. Levamisole
b) For larvae : administered via injection i.e. injectables . It includes
macrocyclic lactones and they are abamectin , doramectin , ivermectin and
moxidectin .
2) NON - PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS : Treatment of the disease occurs
mainly by pharmacological means while the non – pharmacological methods
to treat the disease do not include any therapies as such . It refers to the
follow up of the measures needed to be taken to for the said disease .
64

65. MADE BY :
DIVYA SONI ( M.Sc )
65