The document describes the major structures and regions of the human brain, including the four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal), cerebral cortex, sulci, gyri, and fissures. It identifies and explains the functions of key cortical regions within each lobe, such as Broca's area, Wernicke's area, primary motor cortex, primary visual cortex, and others. Diagrams are provided to illustrate the locations and relationships between these important brain structures.
I. Cerebrum
II. Brain Stem
III. Cerebellum.
The Cerebral Cortex
A. Frontal lobe
1) Motor area (area 4):
Frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
anatomy and physiology of temporal lobechaurasia028
this ppt talks about the detailed physiology of temporal lobe and explain in detail about the mechanism involved in speech, auditory response and episodic memory.
it also talks about the anatomy and functions of the temporal lobe.
I. Cerebrum
II. Brain Stem
III. Cerebellum.
The Cerebral Cortex
A. Frontal lobe
1) Motor area (area 4):
Frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
anatomy and physiology of temporal lobechaurasia028
this ppt talks about the detailed physiology of temporal lobe and explain in detail about the mechanism involved in speech, auditory response and episodic memory.
it also talks about the anatomy and functions of the temporal lobe.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Pharma Pcd Franchise in Jharkhand - Yodley Lifesciences
Human brain
1. The Human
Master Watermark Image: http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
2. P a r t I:
L o b e s , the C e re b ra l C o rte x, a nd
C o r t ic a l R e g io n s o f t h e B r a in
3. Objectives:
• Students will be able to describe the general structure of the
Cerebrum and Cerebral Cortex.
• Students will be able to identify the Cerebrum, the Lobes of
the Brain, the Cerebral Cortex, and its major regions/divisions.
• Students will be able to describe the primary functions of
the Lobes and the Cortical Regions of the Brain.
4. Cerebrum -The largest division of the brain. It is
divided into two hemispheres, each of which is
divided into four lobes.
Cerebrum
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
5. Cerebral Cortex - The outermost layer of gray
matter making up the superficial aspect of the
cerebrum.
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral Cortex
http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-6.tif.jpg
6. Cerebral Features:
• Gyri – Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain.
• Sulci – Small grooves dividing the gyri
– Central Sulcus – Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal
Lobe
• Fissures – Deep grooves, generally dividing large
regions/lobes of the brain
– Longitudinal Fissure – Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres
– Transverse Fissure – Separates the Cerebrum from the
Cerebellum
– Sylvian/Lateral Fissure – Divides the Temporal Lobe from the
Frontal and Parietal Lobes
8. Specific Sulci/Fissures:
Central Sulcus
Longitudinal Fissure
Sylvian/Lateral
Fissure
Transverse Fissure
http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg http://www.dalbsoutss.eq.edu.au/Sheepbrains_Me/human_brain.gif
9. Lobes of the Brain (4)
• Frontal
• Parietal
• Occipital
• Temporal
http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
* Note: Occasionally, the Insula is considered the fifth lobe. It is located deep
to the Temporal Lobe.
10. Lobes of the Brain - Frontal
• The Frontal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Frontal Bone of the skull.
• It plays an integral role in the following functions/actions:
- Memory Formation
- Emotions
- Decision Making/Reasoning
- Personality
Investigation Phineas Gage)
(Investigation: (Phineas Gage)
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
11. Frontal Lobe - Cortical Regions
• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus) – Cortical site
involved with controlling movements of the body.
• Broca’s Area – Controls facial neurons, speech, and language
comprehension. Located on Left Frontal Lobe.
– Broca’s Aphasia – Results in the ability to comprehend speech, but
the decreased motor ability (or inability) to speak and form words.
• Orbitofrontal Cortex – Site of Frontal Lobotomies
* Desired Effects: * Possible Side Effects:
- Diminished Rage - Epilepsy
- Decreased Aggression - Poor Emotional Responses
- Poor Emotional - Perseveration (Uncontrolled, repetitive
Responses actions, gestures, or words)
• Olfactory Bulb - Cranial Nerve I, Responsible for sensation of Smell
12. Investigation (Phineas Gage)
Primary Motor
Cortex/ Precentral
Gyrus
Broca’s Area
Orbitofrontal
Cortex
Olfactory Bulb
Regions
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
13. Lobes of the Brain - Parietal Lobe
• The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Parietal Bone of the skull.
• It plays a major role in the following functions/actions:
- Senses and integrates sensation(s)
- Spatial awareness and perception
(Proprioception - Awareness of
body/ body parts in space and
in relation to each other)
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
14. Parietal Lobe - Cortical Regions
• Primary Somatosensory Cortex (Postcentral
Gyrus) – Site involved with processing of tactile
and proprioceptive information.
• Somatosensory Association Cortex - Assists
with the integration and interpretation of
sensations relative to body position and orientation
in space. May assist with visuo-motor coordination.
• Primary Gustatory Cortex – Primary site
involved with the interpretation of the sensation of
Taste.
16. Lobes of the Brain – Occipital Lobe
• The Occipital Lobe of the
Brain is located deep to the
Occipital Bone of the Skull.
• Its primary function is the
processing, integration,
interpretation, etc. of VISION and
visual stimuli.
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
17. Occipital Lobe – Cortical Regions
• Primary Visual Cortex – This is the primary
area of the brain responsible for sight
-recognition of size, color, light, motion,
dimensions, etc.
• Visual Association Area – Interprets
information acquired through the primary visual
cortex.
19. Lobes of the Brain – Temporal Lobe
• The Temporal Lobes are located on the sides of the
brain, deep to the Temporal Bones of the skull.
• They play an integral role
in the following functions:
- Hearing
- Organization/Comprehension
of language
- Information Retrieval
(Memory and Memory Formation)
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif
.jpg
20. Temporal Lobe – Cortical Regions
• Primary Auditory Cortex – Responsible for hearing
• Primary Olfactory Cortex – Interprets the sense of
smell once it reaches the cortex via the olfactory
bulbs. (Not visible on the superficial cortex)
• Wernicke’s Area – Language comprehension.
Located on the Left Temporal Lobe.
- Wernicke’s Aphasia – Language comprehension
is inhibited. Words and sentences are not clearly
understood, and sentence formation may be inhibited or
non-sensical.
22. • Arcuate Fasciculus - A white matter tract that connects Broca’s Area and
Wernicke’s Area through the Temporal, Parietal and Frontal Lobes. Allows
for coordinated, comprehensible speech. Damage may result in:
- C o n d u c t i o n A p h a s i a - Where auditory comprehension
and speech articulation are preserved, but people find it difficult to
repeat heard speech.
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
23. Click the Region to see its Name
Korbinian Broadmann - Learn about the man who divided the Cerebral Cortex into 52 distinct regions:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korbinian_Brodmann
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg
24. Lobes and Structures of the Brain
A. G.
B.
F.
C.
E.
D.
http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
25. Lobes and Structures of the Brain
A. Central Sulcus
B. Frontal Lobe
C. Sylvian/Lateral Fissure
A. (groove) G.
D. Temporal Lobe B.
E. Transverse Fissure F.
F. Occipital Lobe
G. Parietal Lobe C. (groove)
D. E.
(groove)
http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
26. A. K.
Cortical Regions J.
B. I.
H.
G.
C.
D.
E. F.
http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
27. A. Primary Motor Cortex/ Precentral Gyrus
B. Broca’s Area
C. Orbitofrontal Cortex
Cortical Regions
D. Primary Olfactory Cortex (Deep)
E. Primary Auditory Cortex K.
A. J.
F. Wernike’s Area
G. Primary Visual Cortex I.
H. Visual B.
H.
Association Area
I. Primary Gustatory Cortex G.
J. Somatosensory C.
Association Cortex
K. Primary Somatosensory D.
Cortex/ Postcentral Gyrus E. F.
http://williamcalvin.com/BrainForAllSeasons/img/bonoboLH-humanLH-viaTWD.gif
28. Copyright: Gary Larson
Q: Assuming this comical situation was factually
accurate, what Cortical Region of the brain would
these doctors be stimulating?
29. A: Primary Motor Cortex
* This graphic representation of the regions of the Primary Motor Cortex and
Primary Sensory Cortex is one example of a HOMUNCULUS:
Homunculus
30. * Note: Homunculus literally means “little person,” and may refer to one whose body shape is
governed by the cortical area devoted to that body region.
Q: What do you notice about the proportions
depicted in the aforementioned homunculus?
A: They are not depicted in the same scale representative of
the human body.
Q: What is meant by depicting these body parts
in such outrageous proportions?
A: These outrageous proportions depict the cortical area
devoted to each structure.
- Ex: Your hands require many intricate movements and
sensations to function properly. This requires a great deal of
cortical surface area to control these detailed actions. Your
back is quite the opposite, requiring limited cortical area to
carry out its actions and functions, or detect sensation. Back-Hom.
31. Further Investigation
Phineas Gage: Phineas Gage was a railroad worker in the 19th century living in
Cavendish, Vermont. One of his jobs was to set off explosive charges in large rock in
order to break them into smaller pieces. On one of these instances, the detonation
occurred prior to his expectations, resulting in a 42 inch long, 1.2 inch wide, metal rod
to be blown right up through his skull and out the top. The rod entered his skull below
his left cheek bone and exited after passing through the anterior frontal lobe of his
brain.
Frontal
32. Remarkably, Gage never lost consciousness, or quickly regained it (there is still some
debate), suffered little to no pain, and was awake and alert when he reached a doctor
approximately 45 minutes later. He had a normal pulse and normal vision, and
following a short period of rest, returned to work several days later. However, he was
not unaffected by this accident.
http://www.sruweb.com/~walsh/gage5.jpg
Learn more about Phineas Gage: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage
Frontal
33. Q: Recalling what you have just learned regarding the frontal lobe, what
possible problems or abnormalities may Gage have presented with
subsequent to this type of injury (remember the precise location of the rod
through his brain)?
A: Gage’s personality, reasoning, and capacity to understand and follow social
norms had been diminished or destroyed. He illustrated little to no interest in
hobbies or other involvements that at one time he cared for greatly. ‘After the
accident, Gage became a nasty, vulgar, irresponsible vagrant. His former
employer, who regarded him as "the most efficient and capable foreman in
their employ previous to his injury," refused to rehire him because he was so
different.’
Q: It is suggested that Gage’s injury inspired the development of what at one
time was a widely used medical procedure. What might this procedure be, and
how does it relate to Gage’s injury?
A: The frontal lobotomy. This has been used with the intention to diminish
aggression and rage in mental patients, but generally results in drastic
personality changes, and an inability to relate socially. This procedure is
largely frowned upon today, with the development of neurological drugs as
treatments.
Frontal
35. Suggested Supplementary Materials:
2. Skeleton Outline for note-taking.
3. Multiple Diagrams of the Human Brain.
* Students will label features/lobes
* Students will color-code cortical regions
3. Worksheets (matching, short answer, etc.), centered around the functions of the
lobes and regions of the cerebrum.
4. A more in depth article on Phineas Gage. Read and discuss as a class - time
permitting.
Suggested Assessments:
2. Class/individual questioning throughout (especially at the conclusion of) the
presentation.
3. Homework worksheets - discussed or collected in class.
4. Students will take a test on the nervous system in which they will be responsible
for the structures, lobes, regions, functions, etc.
36. Massachusetts State Biology Standards
Broad Concept: There is a relationship between structure and
function in organ systems of humans.
4.1 Explain how major organ systems in humans (e.g.,
kidney, muscle, lung) have functional units (e.g., nephron,
sarcome, alveoli) with specific anatomy that perform the
function of that organ system.
4.2 Describe how the function of individual systems within
humans are integrated to maintain a homeostatic balance in
the body.
* Note: This PowerPoint has been developed for Juniors and
Seniors enrolled in Anatomy and Physiology Courses. Thus, the
detail of the concepts and information contained herein is far
greater than required by the state Biology standards listed above.
37. National Standards:
THE BEHAVIOR OF ORGANISMS:
• Multicellular animals have nervous systems that generate behavior. Nervous systems are formed
from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up
nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and
inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals
and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.
• Organisms have behavioral responses to internal changes and to external stimuli. Responses to
external stimuli can result from interactions with the organism's own species and others, as well as
environmental changes; these responses either can be innate or learned. The broad patterns of
behavior exhibited by animals have evolved to ensure reproductive success. Animals often live in
unpredictable environments, and so their behavior must be flexible enough to deal with
uncertainty and change. Plants also respond to stimuli.
• Like other aspects of an organism's biology, behaviors have evolved through natural selection.
Behaviors often have an adaptive logic when viewed in terms of evolutionary principles.
• Behavioral biology has implications for humans, as it provides links to psychology, sociology,
and anthropology.